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ON  iVii't’ji'K,  I ,!i'RRA'n!RE,  History 

IS'I'OMS  OE'THli  ANCn-NT  EGYPTIANS 


y* 


3": 


*••'  r 
.'  •»* 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2017  with  funding  from 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary  Library 


https://archive.org/details/dwellersonnileorOObudg_0 


Visit  of  a family  of  the  Semitic  nation  called  Amu  to  Egypt  about  2350  B.C.  (From  the  tomb  of  Chnum-hetep.) 


See  p.  65. 


The  Inscription  above  the  figures  in  the  upper  division  reads : ‘ The  coming  to  bring  viest’emut  (eye  paint),  which  thirty-seven  people  of  the  Amu  bring  to  him  ’ {i.e,,  to  the  Prince 
Chnum-hetep).  In  front  of  the  prince  is  the  royal  scribe  Nefer-hetep,  and  behind  him  is  the  superintendent  The  first  of  the  Amu  is  ‘ the  governor  of  Abesh.’ 


of  13itile  i^nokDletrge. 

VIII. 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE 

OR 

CHAPTERS  ON  THE  LIFE  LITERATURE 
HISTORY  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE 
ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 


BY 

E.  A.  WALLIS  BUDGE,  M.A. 

Christ’s  college,  Cambridge. 

Assistant  in  the  Department  of  Oriental  Antiquities,  British  Museum. 
Author  of ' Babylonian  Life  and  History  I 


THE  RELIGIOUS  TRACT  SOCIETY, 

56,  Paternoster  Row  ; 65,  St.  Paul’s  Churchyard. 


And  the  spirit  of  Egypt  shall  fail  in  the  midst  thereof ; and  I will  destroy 
the  counsel  thereof : and  they  shall  seek  to  the  idols,  and  to  the  charmers, 
and  to  them  that  have  familiar  spirits,  and  to  the  wizards. 

And  the  waters  shall  fail  from  the  sea,  and  the  river  shall  he  wasted  and 
dried  up. 

And  they  shall  turn  the  rivers  far  away  ; and  the  brooks  of  defence  shall 
be  emptied  and  dried  up  : the  reeds  and  flags  shall  wither. 

The  paper  reeds  by  the  brooks,  by  the  mouth  of  the  brooks,  and  every 
thing  sown  by  the  brooks,  shall  wither,  be  driven  away,  and  be  no  more. 

The  fishers  also  shall  mourn,  and  all  they  that  cast  angle  into  the  brooks 
shall  lament,  and  they  that  spread  nets  upon  the  waters  shall  languish. 

Moreover  they  that  work  in  fine  flax,  and  they  that  weave  networks, 
shall  be  confounded. 

And  they  shall  be  broken  in  the  purposes  thereof,  all  that  make  sluices 
and  ponds  for  fish. 

Surely  the  Princes  of  Zoan  are  fools,  the  counsel  of  the  wise  counsellors 
of  Pharaoh  is  become  brutish  : how  say  ye  unto  Pharaoh,  I am  the  son  of 
the  wise,  the  son  of  ancient  kings  ? 

The  Princes  of  Zoan  are  become  fools,  the  Princes  of  Noph  are  deceived. 


Isaiah  xix. 


CONTENTS. 


* Introduction. 

CHAPTER  I 
Decipherment  of  the  Egyptian  Hierogi.yphics. 

Attempts  of  Kircher  and  others  to  read  them — Guignes  and  Zoega — 
Rosetta  Stone — Translation  of  the  Greek  portion  by  Dr.  Birch — 
Absurd  conjectures  about  the  meaning  of  the  hieroglyphs — Young 
and  his  work — Champollion’s  wonderful  genius — The  decipher- 
ment accomplished  by  the  names  of  Cleopatra  and  Ptolemy — 
Attack  by  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  and  refutation  of  his  arguments  by 
Mr.  Renouf — Letter  of  Dr.  Lepsius — Labours  of  Dr.  Birch, 
Lepsius,  and  others  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  15 

CHAPTER  II. 

The  Egyptian  Language  and  Writing. 

Writing  materials,  papyrus,  stone,  wood,  etc. — Mode  of  writing — The 
hieroglyphs,  ideographic  and  phonetic — Determinatives — Short 
list  of  Egyptian  words — List  of  the  most  common  phonetic  signs — 
Hieratic  writing — Ornamental  nature  of  Egyptian  writing  ...  38 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  Land  of  Egypt,  its  People  and  their  History. 

Geographical  position  of  Egypt — Its  names — Original  home  of  the 
Egyptians  in  Asia — Biblical  genealogy — P'irst  Kings  of  Egypt 
— Menes  first  historical  King  of  Egypt — Cheops  and  his 
Pyramid  at  Gizeh — Theory  of  the  pyramids — Chephren — 
Mycerinus — The  Usertsens  and  the  Amenemh.as — Shepherd 
Kings — Ahmes,  Thothmes,  Hatasu — The  Amenhoteps,  Seti — 
Rame.ses  11.  and  the  Hittites — End  of  the  reign  of  Rameses  11. ...  50 

A 2 


TAGE 

7 


4 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Illustrations  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Bible  Passages  from 
THE  Egyptian  Monuments. 

PAGE 

Abraham’s  sojourn  in  Egypt — Famines — Abundance  of  food  in  Egypt — 

Lake  Moeris  and  its  builder — Joseph  sold  into  Egypt — D’Orbiney 
papyrus — ^J oseph  in  prison — Bakers’  baskets — Pharaoh’s  birthday — 
Seven  cows  of  Athor — ^Joseph  interprets  the  dream — Egyptian 
barber  and  razors — Fine  linen  and  golden  chain — Joseph’s 
Egyptian  name  and  its  meaning — Oppression  of  the  Israelites — 
Bricks  made  without  straw — Moses  laid  in  a papyrus  box — The 
Exodus  in  the  reign  of  Meneptah — Subsequent  contact  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Israelites — Pharaoh  Hophra  and  Pharaoh  Necho — 
Decline  of  the  Empire — Persian  rule  and  subjugation  of  Egypt  ...  8o 

CHAPTER  V. 

Egyptian  Literature. 

Poem  of  Pentaur  on  the  war  of  Rameses  11,  with  the  Khita  - 
Hymns  to  the  Nile — Hymn  to  Ra — Magical  works — Tale  of  Two 
Brothers — Possessed  Princess  of  Bakhten — The  Song  of  the 
Harper...  ...  ...  ...  ;..  ...  ...  ...  ...  99 


CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Egyptian  Religion. 

Immense  number  of  the  gods  of  Egypt — Triads — Meaning  of  the  word 
for  ‘god  ’ — Egyptian  conception  of  the  Supreme  Deity — Morality — 

List  of  deities — Sacrifices,  priests  and  their  food  ...  ...  ...  129 


CHAPTER  VIE 
The  Burial  of  the  Dead. 

Egyptian  tombs  and  coffins — Book  of  the  Dead — Description  of  a 
tomb  of  the  Ancient  Empire — Pictures  and  inscriptions  on  tombs — 
hunereal  stelae...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  147 


CONTENTS. 


5 


CHAPTER  Vin. 

The  Mummy. 

PAGE 

Egyptian  soul,  ka,  and  shade — Modes  of  making  mummies — The  genii 
of  the  dead — Cartonnage — Scarabsei  and  objects  deposited  with 
the  dead — Ushabti  figures  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  156 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Book  of  the  Dead. 

Contents  of  the  ‘ Book  of  the  Dead  ’ — Explanation  of  parts  of  it — The 
blessed  dead — The  forty-two  judges — The  final  judgment  before 
Osiris — The  negative  confession — The  Egyptian  a fatalist  ...  167 

CHAPTER  X. 

The  Life  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians. 

Egyptian  children  and  their  toys — Dress  of  the  kings,  priests,  and 
common  people — Toilet  articles — Kohl — Marriage — Titles  of  the 
king,  and  his  duties — Queens  reigned  over  Egypt — Cemetery  of 
Memphis — Egyptian  houses — Agriculture — Nilometers — Egyptian 
army,  arms  and  weapons — Diet  of  the  Egyptians — Sports  and 
amusements  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  179 


CHAPTER  XL 
Architecture  and  Art. 

Principal  periods  of  Egyptian  architecture — Statues  of  Chephren — 
Obelisks — Tomb  at  Beni-Hassan — Decline  of  architecture  under 
the  Shepherd  Kings — Golden  age  of  art  and  architecture  under 
Rameses  11. — Imitations  of  old  works  in  the  time  of  the  XXVIth 
Dynasty — The  Ptolemies  and  the  influence  of  the  Greeks- — Cha- 
racter of  the  Egyptian  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  189 


APPENDIX. 


The  Egyptian  Calendar  195 

Index  ...  ...  ...  ...  197 

List  of  Scripture  Rkferencls  ..  203 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


— 


PAGE 

Semites  coming  into  Egypt  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  Frontispiece 

Eac-simile  of  Inscriptions  on  Rosetta  Stone  ...  ...  ...  ...  20 

Papyrus  and  Palette  with  Reeds  for  writing  ...  ...  ...  ...  40 

Hieratic  Writing ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  49 

The  Sphinx  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  60 

Bust  of  Thothmes  III.  ...  ....  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  70 

Raineses  II.  in  battle  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  76 

Egyptian  Barbers  at  work  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  84 

Brickmakers  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  91 

Hieroglyphic  Borders  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  no,  Ul 

Groups  of  Egyptian  Gods  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  128 

Ra . . . ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  136 

Figure  of  Ptah-Socharis-Osiris,  and  Box  for  holding  Mummied  Object  137 
Thoth  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  140 

Female  Mourners  for  the  Dead...  ...  ...  ...  . ...  148 

Soul  with  Symbols  of  Life  and  Breath  revisiting  Mummied  Body  156 
Mummy  of  the  lady  Katebt,  a Musician  of  the  God  Amen  ...  ...  160 

Scarabaeus  inscribed  with  a part  of  the  Thirtieth  Chapter  of  the 

Ritual  of  the  Dead ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  163 

Ushabti  Figures  containing  the  Sixth  Chapter  of  the  Ritual  of  the 

Dead...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  165 

The  Elysian  Fields  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  169 

Part  of  the  Seventeenth  Chapter  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Dead...  ...  171 

The  Judgment  Hall  of  Osiris 174 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  land  of  Egypt,  its  people  and  their  history,  have 
been  the  subjects  of  the  most  earnest  enquiry  both  in 
ancient  and  modern  times.  The  reason  is  not  far  to 
seek,  for  apart  from  its  importance  to  the  philologist 
and  profane  historian,  the  nation  claims  the  attention  of 
every  Bible  reader  and  student,  from  the  fact  of  its  being 
contemporary  with  Abraham,  and  the  nursing  land  of  the 
Jewish  nation.  When  the  patriarch  Abraham  found  a 
famine  in  Canaan,  he  sought  food  and  life  in  the  land 
of  the  Pharaohs;  and  after  Joseph  had  become  ‘the 
ruler  of  the  land,’  Jacob  journeyed  thither  that  his 
posterity  might  fill  the  measure  of  their  four  hundred 
(or  four  hundred  and  thirty)  years’  captivity.  The  Jews 
entered  the  land  ‘ when  they  were  but  a few  men  in 
number,’  they  went  out  by  myriads  ; they  went  in  as 
visitors  dependent  on  the  good  favour  of  the  Pharaoh, 
they  went  out  with  triumph.  Egypt  was  a place  of 
refuge  alike  for  the  founder  of  the  race,  for  the  families 
of  the  patriarchs,  and  for  their  mighty  Descendant, 
‘The  Giver  of  Life,’  Who  with  His  mother  departed 
by  night  into  Egypt. 

The  influence  of  the  Egyptians  upon  the  Jews  was 


8 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


marked  and  powerful,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that 
living  for  so  long  a time  in  a land  where  civilization  had 
been  known  for  thousands  of  years,  where  learning  in 
all  its  branches  was  studied  and  cultivated,  and  where 
there  was  a luxurious  and  polished  system  of  life,  with 
its  magnificent  temples  and  buildings  and  worship, 
must  have  influenced  Israel  in  its  infancy  for  good  and 
for  bad.  In  a good  way  the  influence  would  show  itself 
by  the  Jews  gathering  to  themselves  some  of  the  learning 
and  wisdom  for  which  the  Egyptians  were  famed  among 
the  nations  around.  The  Egyptian  education  of  Moses 
was  never  forgotten  by  the  posterity  of  Abraham,  for 
the  martyr  Stephen  in  his  dying  speech  remembered 
that  Moses  ‘was  learned  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians.’  Much  else  too  would  they  learn  of  the 
arts  of  the  Egyptians  : the  dyeing  of  skins,  the  weaving  of 
cloth,  the  cutting  of  precious  stones,  and  the  manufacture 
of ‘fine  twined  linen  wrought  with  needlework,’  etc.  All 
this  knowledge  was  put  to  a glorious  use  later  on  in  the 
making  of  the  Tabernacle  and  the  instruments  for  its 
service.  The  whole  description  of  the  Tabernacle  in 
Exodus  is  full  of  allusions  to  Egyptian  customs  : the 
strict  rules  for  the  purifying  of  the  priests,  the  ephod  of 
the  high-priest,  the  pomegranate  decoration  of  the  hem 
of  his  robe,  his  breast-plate  and  his  mitre,  all  had  their 
counterpart  among  the  Egyptians.  And  not  only  was  the 
knowledge  gained  from  the  Egyptians  sanctified  to  the 
service  of  the  Lord,  but  the  mirrors  which  the  Israelitish 
women  possessed,  and  which  had  been  brought  by  them 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


from  Egypt,  were  melted  down  and  went  to  make  the 
‘ layer  of  brass  and  the  foot  of  it.’^  Recently,  Renouf 
has  shown  that  the  word  cherubim  may  have  been  derived 
from  the  Egyptian  cherefu.  The  evil  effects  of  the  stay 
of  the  Hebrews  in  Egypt  are  best  shown  by  the 
readiness  with  which  they  worshipped  the  ‘golden  calf,’ 
or  Apis,  set  up  by  Aaron  during  the  absence  of  Moses  ; 
and  when  difficulties  met  them  and  food  was  scarce,  by 
their  demoralised  proneness  to  return  to  Egypt,  where, 
though  in  a state  of  servitude,  they  had  enjoyed  an  abun- 
dance of  cucumbers,  melons,  leeks,  onions,  and  garlic. 

Before  the  present  century  every  writer  on  Egypt  was 
compelled  to  rely  upon  the  statements  of  Greek  and 
other  historians,  who  not  only  often  misunderstood  what 
they  were  told,  but  filled  up  their  works  in  many  places 
with  obsolete  traditions  and  their  own  ideas.  The  day  for 
this  necessity,,  however,  is  now  past,  and  though  there 
are  many  difficulties  yet  to  be  overcome  in  the  Egyptian 
language,  still  enough  has  been  made  out  to  show  how 
carelessly  the  religion  and  customs  of  the  Egyptians 
have  been  represented  by  foreign  writers.  Pyramid  and 
obelisk,  sarcophagus  and  coffin,  stele  and  papyrus  and 
. leather  have  now  spoken,  and  their  inscriptions,  ranging 
from  4000  B.C.  to  the  time  of  Christ,  have  in  a great 
measure  yielded  up  the  authentic  history  of  the  dwellers 
by  the  Nile  ; and  its  real  bearing  on  the  civilization  of 
the  West,  extending  even  to  our  own  times,  is  now 
beginning  to  be  rightly  appreciated. 

‘ Exodus  xxxviii.  8. 


10 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


The  mere  names  of  the  works  on  Egypt  would  fill  a 
large  book,  but  a strong  line  of  demarcation  must 
be  drawn  between  those  published  before  and  after  the 
year  1817.  Before  that  time  Egypt  was  the  subject 
of  the  wildest  theories  and  conjectures,  but  after 
Champollion’s  discovery  of  the  true  reading  of  the 
hieroglyphs  and  their  meaning,  this  was  no  longer 
possible;  theory  vanished  before  fact,  and  conjecture 
before  certain  knowledge. 

In  the  following  pages  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
give  a very  brief  sketch  of  a few  of  the  principal  events 
in  the  history  of  Egypt  (especially  the  part  relating  to 
the  Bible  narratives  of  Joseph  and  of  Moses),  its  people 
their  mode  of  life  and  literature,  etc.  But  I wish  it  to  be 
distinctly  understood  that  I am  well  aware  how  impossible 
it  is  even  to  touch  upon  all  the  important  heads  of  so 
vast  a subject  in  a little  book  like  this. 

The  information  here  given  has  been  obtained  from 
the  first  and  best  sources.  For  the  history  of  the 
decipherment  of  the  hieroglyphs  1 have  relied  upon 
that  of  Dr.  Birch,  published  in  the  late  Sir  Gardner 
Wilkinson’s  ‘ The  Egyptians  in  the  time  of  the  Pharaohs,’ 
London,  1857.  Considering  that  this  is  the  only  good 
and  trustworthy  account  of  this  matter  in  England,  I 
wonder  much  that  no  one  has  considered  it  worth 
while  to  reprint  Dr.  Birch’s  part  of  that  work.  The 
greater  part  of  Egyptian  history  has  been  long  well 
known,  and  the  principal  books  consulted  by  me  for  the 
history  of  Egypt  were  ‘ Egypt,’  by  Dr.  Birch,  in  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


1 1 

‘Ancient  History  from  the  Monuments’  series;  Wiede- 
mann’s ‘ Aeg^yptische  Geschichte,’  and  Brugsch’s  ‘ Egypt 
under  the  Pharaohs.’  A long  array  of  books  and  papers 
in  the  ‘Transactions  ’ of  the  learned  Societies  constitute 
the  authorities  for  the  remaining  chapters  of  the  book  ; 
and  I am  glad  to  express  my  obligations  to  their  authors, 
more  especially  to  Dr.  Birch,  Mr.  Le  Page  Renouf, 
and  Messrs.  Stern,  Brugsch,  Maspero,  Naville,  Wilkin- 
son, and  Wiedemann. 

My  thanks  are  also  due  to  Dr.  Garnett  of  the  British 
Museum  for  his  care  and  kindness  in  reading  the  proof 
sheets. 


12 


Chronological  Table  of  the  Principal  Kings 
OF  Egypt,  with  approximate  Dates.^ 


isi  Dynasty. 

B.C. 

B.C, 

Cha-f-Ra 

3666 

Mena... 

4400 

Men-kau-Ra ... 

3633 

Teta  ... 

4366 

Shepseskaf  ... 

3600 

Atet  ... 

4333 

Ata  ... 
Hesep-ti 

5M  Dynasty. 

Mer-bapen 
Senienptah 
Kebh ... 

4233 

4200 

4166 

Userkaf 

Sahu-Ra 

3566 

3533 

Kaka... 

3500 

Nefer-Ra 

3466 

2nd  Dynasty. 

Ra-en-user-An 

3433 

Menkau-Her 

3400 

Bet'au 

4133 

Tet-ka-Ra 

3366 

Kakau 

4100 

Unas  ... 

3333 

Ba-neter-en  ... 

4066 

Uatnes 

4033 

Senta . . . 

40C0 

6/7/  Dynasty. 

User-ka-Ra  ... 

3.300 

yrd  Dynasty. 

Teta  ... 

3266 

Meri-Ra 

3233 

Tatai 

3966 

Meren-Ra 

3200 

Nebka 

3933 

Nefer-ka-Ra 

3166 

T'er-sa 

3900 

Mer-en-Ra-Ment-em-saf 

3133 

Teta  ... 

3866 

Setes  ... 

3*^33 

^tk-iith  Dynasties. 

Ra-nefer-ka  ... 

3800 

Neter-ka-Ra... 

3100 

^th  Dynasty. 

Men-ka-Ra  ... 

3066 

Nefer-ka-Ra... 

3033 

•Snefru 

3766 

Nefer-ka-Ra  Nebi  ... 

3000 

Chufu 

3733 

Tet-ka-Ra-maa-kes  (?) 

2966 

Ra-tebf 

3700 

Nefer-ka-Ra  Chentu 

2933 

' The  dates  are  those  of  Brugsch,  as  published  in  ‘ Egypt  under  the 
Pharaohs,’  ii.,  p.  31 1. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE.  13 


B.C.  I 

Mer-en-Her  ...  ...  ...  2900 

Senefer-ka  ...  ...  ...  2866 

Ra-en-ka  ...  ...  ...  2833 

Nefer-ka-Ra  Tererl . . . ...  2800 

Nefer-ka-Her  ...  ...  2766 

Nefer-ka-Ra  Pepi-seneb  ...  2733 

Nefer-ka-Ra  Anna  ...  ...  2700 

kau-Ra  ...  2666 

Nefer-kau-Ra  ...  ...  2633 

Ne(er-kau-Her  ...  ...  2600 

Neferarka-Ra  ...  ...  2566 

Neb-cher-Ra  ...  ...  2533 

Seancbka-Ra  ...  ...  2500 


izth  Dynasty. 

Amenemha  I. 

2466 

Usertsen  1.  ... 

2433 

Amenemha  H. 

2400 

Usertsen  11. 

2366 

,,  HI 

2333 

Amenemha  HI. 

2300 

,,  ' IV 

2266 

\yh-\’Jth  Dynasties. 

Here  comes  a break  of  500  years, 
in  which  the  ‘ Shepherd  Kings’  ’ 
rule  falls. 


l8//ii  Dynasty. 


A limes  1700 

Amenhetep  1.  ...  ...  1666 

Thothmes  L...  ...  ...  1633 

III'.}  

Amenhetep  11.  ...  ...  1566 

Thothmes  IV.  ...  ...  1533 

Amenhetep  III.  ...  ...  1500 

Her-em-heb  ...  ...  1466 

Heretic  kings  ...  ...  1433 


B.C. 

19//2  Dynasty. 

Rameses  I.  ...  ...  ...  1400 

Seti  1.  ...  1366 

Rameses  11.  ...  ...  1333 

Merenptah  ...  ...  ...  1300 

Seti  H.  1266 


20th  Dynasty. 

Setnecht,  Rameses  HI.  ...  1233 

Rameses  HI.  ...  ...  1200 

„ IV.  1 

V.  I 

„ VI.  !■  1166 

„ VII.  I 

„ viii.j 
IX.  d 
„ X.  I 

,,  XL  }■  1133 

„ XII.  I 

n XIII.J 


2ir^  Dynasty. 


Herher 

I 100 

Piankhi 

1066 

Pi-net'em 

1033 

Pa-seb-cha-nen  1.  ... 

1000 

Men-cheper-Ra 

— 

Amen-em-ap-t 

— 

Pa-seb-cha-nen  H.  ... 

— 

22nd  Dynasty. 

Sheshank  1.  . . . 

966 

Osorkon  I.  ... 

933 

Takelot  1. 

900 

Osorkon  H.  ... 

866 

Sheshank  H. 

833 

Takelot  11.  ... 

800 

Sheshank  III. 



Pirnai 



.Sheshank  IV. 

— 

14 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE. 


B.c. 

lyd  Dynasty, 

Pet-tu-Bast  ...  ...  ...  — 

Osorkon  III.  ...  ...  766 

2yth  Dynasty. 

Bak-en-ren-f...  ...  ...  733 


Artaxerxes  ... 

B.c. 

465 

Xerxes  11.  ... 

Sogdianus 

— 

Darius  11.  ... 

...  424 

2%th  Dynasty. 
Amen-rut  (Ainyrtaeus) 


25M  Dynasty. 


.Shabaka  ) 

Shabataka  ) 

/UVJ 

Taharka 

693 

2bth  Dynasty. 

Psamtek  1.  ... 

666 

Nekau 

612 

Psamtek  11. ... 

596 

Uah-ab-Ra  ... 

591 

Ahmes  II.  ... 

572 

Psamtek  III. 

528 

2()th  Dynasty. 


Nai-f-aa-u-rut  1.  ...  ...  399 

Muthes  ...  ...  ...  — 

Pa-sa-Mut  ...  ...  ...  — 

Nai-f-aa-u-rut  11.  ...  ...  379 

2,otk  Dynasty. 

Necht-IIer  heb  ...  ...  378 

Teher  ...  ...  ...  360 

Necht-neb-f  (Nectanebus)  ...  358 


31^/  Dynasty. 


21th  Dynasty. 


Cambyses 

...  527 

Darius  1. 

...  521 

Xerxes  1. 

...  486 

Ochus 

340 

Arses... 

338 

Darius  III.  ... 

336 

Conquest  by  Alexander  the 

Great 

332 

THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE, 

OR, 

CHAPTERS  ON  THE  LIFE,  LITERATURE,  HISTORY, 
AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

Decipherment  of  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics. 

Among  the  many  linguistic  triumphs  which  have  been 
achieved  by  scholars  in  the  nineteenth  centuiy,  the 
decipherment  of  the  cuneiform  inscriptions^  and  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics  takes  the  foremost  place.  By 
their  decipherment  two  of  the  greatest  and  most 
important  nations  of  antiquity  have  had  their  proper 
place  assigned  t6  them  among  the  nations  of  the  past, 
and  what  is  still  better  and  of  more  use,  their  history 
has  been  unfolded  and  their  learning  and  wisdom  made 
available  for  the  people  of  to-day.  Egypt,  and  its 
people,  whose  past  extends  through  a vista  of  sixty 
or  seventy  centuries,  have  ever  been  the  subject  of 

* For  a popular  and  interesting  account  of  the  decipherment  of  the 
cuneiform  inscriptions,  see  Prof.  Sayce,  ‘ Fresh  Light  from  the  Ancient 
Monuments,’  pp.  10-20. 


1 6 THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 

misunderstanding  and  of  misrepresentation.  The  highly 
cultivated  nations  that  flourished  about  the  period  of 
Egypt’s  final  decay  despised  its  religion,  and  invented  a 
variety  of  absurd  statements  to  cover  their  ignorance 
of  a subject  v/hich  they  did  not  understand.  But 
now  there  is  neither  room  nor  need  for  conjecture  or 
hypothesis,  for,  thanks  to  the  labour  of  Egyptologists, 
the  native  Egyptian  records  have  been  forced  to  yield 
up  their  secrets,  and  we  have  the  means  of  judging 
for  ourselves  what  their  language,  literature,  and 
religion  were  like. 

It  must  not  be  imagined  for  a moment  that  everything 
relating  to  the  Egyptians  is  known,  for  it  is  not.  Much 
has  still  to  be  done  in  many  branches  of  the  science. 
Travellers  who  visit  Egypt  year  by  year  see  each  time 
antiquities  and  ruins  that  they  have  never  seen  before, 
and  tell  us  that  in  spite  of  the  magnificent  collections 
of  Egyptian  antiquities  in  London,  Paris,  Turin,  Berlin, 
Boulak,  and  elsewhere,  Egypt  is  only  half  excavated,  and 
that  as  much,  if  not  more,  exists  under  the  ground  as 
above  it.  What  has  already  been  found  will  serve  as  a 
specimen  of  what  is  still  to  be  found ; so  likewise 
what  Egyptologists  have  already  made  out  from  the 
monuments  and  papyri  is  but  an  earnest  of  what  is  yet 
to  come. 

Before  going  further,  however,  it  will  be  convenient 
here  to  relate  briefly  the  story  of  the  decipherment  of  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics.^  The  man  to  whom  the  world 

* For  the  history  of  this  triumph,  and  for  a list  of  the  writers  on 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  1 7 


principally  owes  its  gratitude  for  this  work  is  Cham- 
pollion.  As  might  be  expected,  one  of  the  most  serious 
difficulties  to  be  overcome  before  any  good  work  could 
be  done  in  the  way  of  reading  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphics, was  to  obtain  careful  and  accurate  copies  of 
inscriptions.  Many  scholars  like  Kircher,  and  travellers 
like  Pococke,  published  copies  of  inscriptions,  but  the 
characters  were  so  distorted  and'  badly  drawn  that  they 
were  worthless  for  the  purpose  of  reading  or  study. 
Many  attempts  hadi  been  made  to  read  the  hieroglyphics 
in  the  sixteenth  century,  but  no  real  progress  was  made  ; 
and  in  the  seventeenth  century  Athanasius  Kircher 
published  his  ‘ CEdipus  ^gyptiacus,’  in  which  he 
professed  to  give  translations  of  P'gyptian  stelje  and  also 
of  an  obelisk.  It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  his 
principles  of  decipherment  were  absolutely  worthless, 
and  it  is  quite  clear  that  he  did  not  understand  that  some 
of  the  signs  represented  letters.  He  considered  each 
sign  to  represent  an  idea,  and,  as  Dr.  Birch  has  pointed 
out,'  he  translated  Domitian’s  title  Antocrator,  by  ‘the 
author  of  fruitfulness  and  of  all  vegetation  is  Osiris, 
whose  productive  force  was  produced  in  his  kingdom  of 
heaven  through  the  holy  Mophta.’ 

The  first  three-quarters  of  the  eighteenth  century 
also  saw  much  valuable  time  and  learning  wasted  in 

Egyptian,  ancient  and  modern  (up  to  1857),  see  the  ‘ Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphs,’  by  Dr.  Birch,  in  Wilkinson’s  ‘ The 
Egyptians  in  the  Time  of  the  Pharaohs,’ 

* Wilkinson,  ‘The  Egyptians  in  the  Time  of  the  Pharaohs,’  p.  191. 

B 


1 8 THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 

producing  works  on  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  which 
were  productive  of  no  good  results  ; but  in  the  fourth 
quarter  some  facts  were  made  out  which  served  to 
hasten  the  solution  of  the  difficult  problem  of  decipher- 
ment. De  Guignes  found  out  that  groups  with 
determinative  characters  existed  in  Egyptian,  and 
Zoega  made  two  startling  discoveries,  (i)  that  the  hiero- 
glyphs were  letters ; (2)  that  each  cartouche  contained  a 
royal  name,^  though  this  latter  discovery  was  also  made 
independently  by  Thomas  Young.  These  were  the  first 
steps  made  in  the  right  direction. 

Matters  remained  thus  until  the  French  scientific 
expedition  to  Egypt  under-  Napoleon  I.  took  place.  In 
1799  an  artillery  officer  named  Boussard  discovered, 
while  digging  the  foundation  of  a house  at  Fort  St. 
Julien,  near  Rosetta,  the  ancient  Bolbitane,  a large 
black  stone,  which  has  since  been  generally  called  the 
‘ Rosetta  Stone,’  and  which  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  stood  originally  in  a temple  of  the  god 
Tmu,  and  was  presented  to  the  French  Institute  of 
Cairo : it  was  afterwards  surrendered  to  General 
Hutchinson,  and  was  presented  by  George  III.  to  the 
British  Museum.^ 

Now,  to  understand  an  unknown  language  it  is 
necessary  to  have  an  interpreter,  and,  as  Champollion 


* The  names  of  kings,  queens,  and  princes  are  enclosed  in  ovals,  to  which 


the  name  cartouche  has  been  given  : thus  ^0  1 


‘ Psammetichus.’ 


" Wilkinson,  ‘ The  Egj’ptians  in  the  Time  of  the  Pharaohs,’ p-  ^9’^- 


a:,  t 

_ ..t(m5rSi”'sr:f^e«£Bi!iJr.'r5ij);s450!r  • 
-^r:<i:::iii§=fTi=r.ias!t;tij.iw-«iR3is!s«.tiii+ 
^£ltIWS.2!il!i+Ei.“'it=m^T;=Ig-11?S!S6GG5li;C.'ll\ 
^iSi©;“s:Tiffi2©^r<mfnS4Kws«3»'»via-?tssi''e<iiisw:'fli 
.^s:iWJSX+at"J:s=r:v!j.T.VYytx-l'i£SBS.+::as:ii!ii,;?'iBri. 
,.ifa3^g:sireivi![as!’issikW5£3?rtUsrr:i#+^i^sriT=5*mi. 

/yi’jsT$sta:t‘.T::i:?:S:=r=.^EiiiKrSi'.s:ss:?wL'fi=.*H4s^*«i:;i'K;g 

>.  mfrenniB5D'*'‘vti''?'.=cc'T.T«gsm!!'^£.jrr4'?iii'ir'M”vw!ifW22CM'?:uuv 


4 


Jtfw 


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1-  %_.r— - w 

, r-^yiy > T ^ 


rj:fci'&SK: 


lnyow^»T&i 


Fac-Simile  of  Inscriptions  on  Rosetta  Stone. 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  21 


has  said,*  the  interpreter  must  be  either  a man,  or  a 
book,  or  a writing  ; in  this  case  the  unknown  language 
was  Egyptian,  and  the  interpreter  was  the  writing  on 
the  Rosetta  Stone.  The  stone  is  three, feet  two  inches 
long,  two  feet  five  inches  wide,  and  contains  inscriptions 
in  three! kinds  of  writing:  one  in  hieroglyphics,  another 
in  demotic,  or  the  language  of  the  people,  and  the  third 
in  Greek.  Most  unfortunately  a very  large  piece  of 
the  end  of  the  stone  containing  the  hieroglyphic  part  of 
the  inscription  was  broken  away,  but  enough  remained 
for  the  purposes  of  interpretation.  Scholars  saw 
immediately  that  a key  was  at  hand  for  the  unlocking 
of  the  mysteries  of  the  Egyptian  language,  and  renewed 
their  ’studieswith  great  vigour.  A fac-simile  of  the  inscrip  - 
tion on  the  stone  was  made  by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries 
in  1802,  and  distributed  among  scholars  ; and  for  the  first 
time  a scientific  attempt  was  made  to  translate  Egyptian. 

When  the  Greek  text  of  the  inscription  had  been  read, 
it  was  found  that  it  was  a decree  drawn  up  by  the 
priests  of  Memphis  in  honour  of  their  king  Ptolemy’ 
Epiphanes,  B.C.  198,  who  had  conferred  enormous 
benefits  upon  them,  and  they  in  gratitude  had  enjoined 
thnt  ‘ this  decree  should  be  engraved  on  a tablet  of 
hard  stone,  in  hieroglyphical,  enchorial,  and  Greek 
characters,  and  should  be  set  up  in  each  of  the  first, 
second,  and  third  rate  temples,  at  the  statue  of  the  ever- 
living  king.’ 

Since  the  Rosetta  Stone  has  always  been  an  object  of 

* ‘ L’Univer.s,’ p.  222. 


22 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


the  greatest  curiosity  to  those  who  are  interested  in  the 
history  of  Egyptian  decipherment,  we  reproduce  here  a 
complete  translation  of  it  by  Dr.  Birch.  As  the  hiero- 
glyphic text  is  imperfect,  and  the  demotic  not  yet  fully 
translated,  the  translation  here  given  is  from  the  Greek. 
It  was  first  published  by  Dr.  Birch  in  Arundale  and 
Bonomi’s  ‘ Gallery  of  Antiquities,’  p.  1 14  ; and  afterwards 
in  ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  Vol.  IV.,  pp.  69-78.  We  must 
add,  however,  that  last  December  the  Museum  of  Boulak 
bought  a stele,  found  at  En-Nobeireh  near  Damanour, 
which  contained  a duplicate  copy  of  the  text  inscribed 
upon  the  Rosetta  Stone.  A reproduction  of  the  stele 
and  the  text  is  given  by  Urbain  Bouriant  in  the  ' Recueil 
de  Travaux  relatifs  a la  Philologie  et  a I’Archdologie 
Kgyptiennes  et  Assyriennes,’  Paris,  1885. 

Translation  of  the  Rosetta  Stone. 

Under  the  reign  of  Youth,  and  immediate  successor  of  his 
father,  lord  of  the  diadems,  very  glorious having  established 
order  in  Egypt ; pious  towards  the  gods  ; superior  to  his  adver- 
saries ; having  ameliorated  the  life  of  men ; Master  of  the 
festivals  of  thirty  years,  like  Hephaistos  the  Great ; like  the  Sun 
great  king  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  regions;  born  of  the  gods 
Philopatores,  approved  by  Hephaistos ; to  whom  the  sun  has 
given  victory ; living  image  of  Zeus  ; Son  of  the  Sun,  Ptolemy, 
always  living,  beloved  of  Ptah,  the  ninth  year ; Aetes  son  of 
.A.etes,  being  Priest  of  Alexander  and  of  the  gods  Soteres  and 
of  the  gods  Adelphoi,  and  of  the  gods  Euergetai,  and  of  the 
gods  Philopatores,  and  of  the  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes. 
Pyrrha,  daughter  of  Philinos,  being  the  Athlophoros  of  Berenice 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  23 


Euergetes,  Aria  daughter  of  Diogenes ; being  the  Kanephoros 
of  Arsinoe  Philadelphos  Eirene,  daughter  of  Ptolemy ; being 
Priestess  of  Arsinoe  Philopator  on  the  4th  of  the  month 
xandikos;  and  the  i8th  of  the  month  of  the  Egyptians, 
Mechir  (March) 

A Decree. 

The  high  priests  and  prophets,  and  those  who  go  into  the 
sanctuary  for  the  clothing  of  the  gods,  and  feather-bearers  and 
sacred  scribes,  and  all  the  other  priests,  who  from  the  temples 
of  the  country  had  assembled  at  Memphis,  before  the  King,  at 
the  festival  of  the  reception  of  the  crown,  of  Ptolemy,  ever  living, 
beloved  of  Ptah,  the  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes,  which  he 
received  direct  from  his  father,  assembled  in  the  temple  at 
Memphis,  this  same  day,  have  said  : ‘ Inasmuch  as  King 
Ptolemy,  ever  living,  beloved  of  Ptah,  god  Epiphanes, 
Eucharistes,  issue  of  the  King  Ptolemy  and  of  the  Queen 
Arsinoe,  gods  Philopatores,  has  filled  the  temples  with  bene- 
factions and  those  therein  dwelling,  and  all  those  who  are 
placed  under  his  dominion,  being  god,  born  of  a god  and  a 
goddess,  like  Horus,  the  son  of  Isis  and  Osiris,  who  has 
avenged  his  father  Osiris  ; towards  the  gods,  full  of  generous 
piety,  has  consecrated  to  the  temples  revenues  of  money  and 
provisions;  and  has  supported  great  expenses  in  order  to  bring 
tranquillity  to  Egypt,  and  to  establish  order  in  all  that  concerns 
sacred  affairs,  has  manifested  with  all  his  own  power  his  senti- 
ments of  humanity  ; and  of  the  public  revenues  and  imposts 
collected  in  Egypt,  he  has  finally  suppressed  some,  and  lightened 
others,  so  that  the  people  and  all  the  others  may  have  plenty 
under  his  reign  ; the  sums  due  to  the  treasury  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Egypt,  and  those  of  the  rest  of  his  kingdom,  whVh  were  very 


24  . 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


considerable,  he  has  generally  remitted ; and  those  imprisoned 
and  those  against  whom  law  suits  had  commenced  long  since, 
he  has  freed  them  from  all  claims  ; he  has  moreover  ordered 
that  the  revenues  of  the  temples,  and  the  contributions  which 
had  been  granted  them  yearly,  whether  in  provision  or  money,  as 
also  the  proper  portions  assigned  to  the  gods,  as  the  vineyards, 
gardens,  and  other  lands,  that  belonged  to  the  gods  under  the 
reign  of  his  father,  should  remain  on  the  same  footing.  As  to 
the  priests,  he  has  also  commanded  that  they  should  pay  nothing 
more  to  the  appointment  fund  than  what  they  had  been  taxed 
to  the  first  year  under  his  father ; he  has  further  remitted  to 
those  amongst  the  sacred  body  annual  voyage  to  Alexandria ; he 
has  likewise  ordered  that  there  should  be  no  longer  levied  the 
contribution  for  the  navy;  of  the  byssus  delivered  in  the  temples 
to  the  royal  treasury  he  has  remitted  two-thirds ; and  all  that 
had  been  previously  neglected,  he  has  re-established  in  proper 
order,  taking  all  care  that  which  it  had  been  customary  to 
perform  for  the  gods  should  be  executed  as  it  ought  to  be ; at 
the  same  time  he  has  distributed  justice  to  all  like  Hermes, 
the  twice  great ; he  has  moreover  ordered,  that  the  returned 
emigrants,  both  of  the  soldiers  and  all  others  who  had  shown 
opposition  in  time  of  troubles,  should  keep  the  property  in  the 
possession  of  which  they  had  re-entered ; he  has  provided  also 
that  of  cavalry  and  infantry  forces  and  ships  should  be  sent 
against  those  who  had  advanced  against  Egypt,  whether  by  land 
or  sea,  supporting  great  expenses  in  money  and  provisions,  so 
that  the  temples  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  Egypt  should  be  in 
safety. 

Having  gone  to  Lycopolis,  which  is  in  the  Busirite  nome,  a 
city  which  had  been  seized  and  fortified  against  a siege,  by 
great  depots  of  arms  and  every  other  kind  of  munitions,  the 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  25 


spirit,  of  revolt  having  strengthened  itself  there  for  a long  time, 
among  the  impious  who  are  assembled  in  it,  had  done  much 
mischief  to  the  temples  and  inhabitants  of  Egypt ; and  having 
laid  siege  to  this  place,  he  surrounded  it  with  entrenchments, 
ditches,  and  strong  walls.  The  Nile  having  made  a great  flood 
in  the  eighth  year,  and  as  it  usually  does,  inundating  the  plains, 
the  King  has  restrained  it,  in  many  places,  by  dyking  the  mouths 
of  the  rivers,  for  which  works  he  has  spent  no  small  sum  : after 
having  established  both  cavalry  and  infantry  troops  to  watch 
them,  he  took  in  a short  time  the  city  by  storm,  and  destroyed 
all  the  impious  ones  there,  like  Hermes  and  Horus,  sons  of 
Isis  and  Osiris,  had  mastered  in  these  same  localities  the 
former  revolters.  As  to  the  ringleaders  of  the  rebels,  under  his 
father,  and  who  had  vexed  the  country  without  respecting  the 
temples,  he  having  come  to  Memphis  to  avenge  his  father  and 
his  own  crown,  he  has  punished  them  all  as  they  deserved.  At 
the  time  when  he  came  to  celebrate  the  ceremonies  prescribed 
on  receiving  his  crown,  he  further  remitted  from  the  temples 
that  which  was  due  to  the  royal  treasury  up  to  the  eighth  year, 
amounting  in  provisions  and  money  to  no  small  matter. 
Similarly  he  remitted  the  value  of  the  cloth  of  the  byssus  which 
had  not  been  furnished  to  the  royal  treasury,  as  also  the 
expenses  of  verification  for  those  which  had  been  so,  up  to  the 
same  period.  He  has  freed  the  temples  from  the  tax  of  an 
artabe  (about  10  gallons)  per  arotira  (i.e.,  the  Egyptian  acre) 
of  sacred  land ; also  of  the  keramion  (i.e.,  a measure)  per 
aroura  of  vineyard.  He  made  many  donations  to  the  Apis,  to 
the  Mnevis,  and  to  the  other  sacred  animals  in  Egypt,  taking 
far.  more  care  than  the  Kings  his  predecessors  of  what  relates  to 
these  animals  in  every  circumstance  ; and  what  was  necessary 
to  their  burial  he  has  given  largely  and  nobly,  as  well  as  the 


26 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


sums  granted  for  their  special  worship,  comprising  therein  the 
sacrifice,  panegyries,  and  other  prescribed  ceremonies.  The 
privileges  of  the  temples  of  Egypt,  he  has  maintained  them  on 
the  same  footing,  conformably  to  the  laws ; he  has  embellished 
the  Apeion  {i.e.,  the  abode  of  the  Apis)  with  magnificent  work, 
having  spent  for  this  temple  in  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones 
a no  small  quantity.  He  has  founded  temples,  shrines,  and 
altars ; he  has  restored  in  turn  those  that  required  repairs, 
having  for  all  that  concerns  the  divinity,  the  zeal  of  a beneficent 
god.  After  new  information,  he  has  repaired  the  chief 
honoured  temples  under  his  reign  as  is  fit.  In  reward  of  which, 
the  gods  have  given  him  health,  victory,  might,  and  all  other 
good  things,  the  crown  to  remain  with  him  and  his  children 
for  all  time. 


To  Good  Fortune. 

It  has  seemed  fit  to  the  priests  of  all  the  temples  in  the 
country,  that  all  the  honours  bestowed  to  the  ever-living  King 
Ptolemy,  beloved  of  Ptah,  the  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes, 
as  well  as  those  of  his  parents,  gods  Philopatores,  and  those  of 
his  grand-parents,  gods  Euergetai,  and  those  of  the  gods 
Adelphi,  and  those  of  the  gods  Soteres,  should  be  greatly 
increased,  and  to  raise  to  the  ever-living  King  Ptolemy  god 
Epiphanes,  Eucharistes,  an  image  in  each  temple,  in  the 
most  visible  part,  which  should  bear  the  name  of  Ptolemy,  the 
avenger  of  Egypt ; that  close  by  should  be  placed  standing 
the  principal  god  of  the  temple,  presenting  him  a weapon  cf 
victory,  the  whole  disposed  in  the  Egyptian  fashion ; that  the 
Priests  should  perform  thrice  daily  religious  services  at  the 
images,  and  place  sacred  decorations  on  them  ; and  they  should 
execute  the  other  prescribed  ceremonies,  as  for  the  other  gods. 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  2/ 


in  the  panegyries  celebrated  in  Egypt ; tliat  they  should  raise 
to  King  Ptolemy,  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes,  born  of  the  King 
Ptolemy  and  the  Queen  Arsinoe,  the  gods  Philopatores,  a 
statue  of  wood,  and  gilt  shrine,  in  each  of  the  temples  ; that 
they  should  place  them  in  the  sanctuaries  with  the  other  shrines  ; 
and  that  at  the  great  panegyries  when  the  shrines  are  taken 
out,  that  of  the  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes,  should  be  taken 
out  at  the  same  time ; in  order  that  his  shrine  should  be 
distinguished  from  the  others,  now  and  hereafter,  it  should  be 
surmounted  with  the  ten  gold  diadems  of  the  King,  before 
which  should  be  placed  an  asp,,  as  with  all  the  diadems  which 
bear  asps  on  the  other  shrines ; that  amidst  them  should  be 
placed  the  head-dress  called  Pschent,  wherewith  the  King  was 
covered  when  he  entered  the  temple  at  Memphis,  there  to 
accomplish  the  ceremonies  prescribed  when  taking  possession 
of  the  throne ; that  should  be  placed  on  the  square  face  of  the 
head-dresses  to  the  aforesaid  royal  ornament,  ten  golden 
phylacteries,  whereon  shall  be  written  that  it  is  that  of  the  King 
who  has  rendered  illustrious  the  Upper  Country  and  the  Lower 
Country  ; and  since  the  thirtieth  of  Mesori,  when  the  King’s 
birthday  is  celebrated,  as  also  the  seventeenth  of  Mechir,  when 
he  received  the  crown  from  his  father  (the  Priests)  have 
recognized  them  as  eponymous  in  the  temples,  which  days  are 
really  cause  of  many  good  things  for  all  men  ; that  they  should 
be  celebrated  in  honour  of  him  by  a panegyry  m the  temples 
of  Egypt,  monthly  that  they  should  perform  in  them  sacrifices, 
libations,  and  all  other  things  appointed  as  in  the  other 
panegyries,  as  well  as  the  . . . .in  the  temples ; that 

they  should  celebrate  a feast  and  a panegyry  for  the  ever-living 
and  beloved  of  Ptah,  King  Ptolemy,  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes 
yearly  in  all  the  temples  of  the  country,  from  the  first  of  Thoth, 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


28 

?c 

during  five  days,  wherein  they  should  also  bear  crowns, 
performing  the  sacrifices  and  libations  and  all  that  is  proper ; 
that  the  Priests  of  the  other  gods  should  receive  the  names  of 
Priests  of  the  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes,  besides  the  other 
names  of  the  gods  of  whom  they  are  the  Priests  ; and  that  they 
should  mention,  in  all  the  decrees  and  declarations  that  be 
written  by  them,  the  priesthood  of  the  King;  that  every' 
individual  may  be  permitted  to  celebrate  the  fete,  to  set  up  the 
aforesaid  shrine,  and  to  have  it  by  him,  accomplishing  all  the 
ceremonies  prescribed  in  the  festivals  monthly  and  annually, 
so  that  it  may  be  known  that  the  Egyptians  (increase)  the 
honours,  and  honour  the  god  Epiphanes,  Eucharistes  the  King, 
as  it  is  legal  to  do  ; finally  that  this  decree  be  engraved  on  a 
tablet  of  hard  stone,  in  hieroglyphic,  enchorial  (or  demotic), 
and  Greek  characters  ; and  place  it  in  every  temple  of  the 
first,’  second,  and  third  class,  near  the  image  of  the  ever-living 
King. 

After  the  Greek  part  of  the  inscription  had  been  read, 
an  attempt  was  made  to  unravel  the  enchorial  or 
demotic  part,  for  it  was  considered  to  be  alphabetic ; 
but  subsequent  research  proved  that  this  view  was  wrong. 
The  eminent  French  Oriental  scholar  Silvestre  de  Sacy 
also  worked  at  the  demotic,  and  succeeded  in  indicating 
the  equivalents  of  the  proper  names  in  the  Greek  version. 
Later,  Akerblad^  the  Swede  gave  himself  up  to  the  study 
of  the  same  part  of  the  inscription,  and  this  scholar  was 
so  successful  that  he  was  enabled  to  find  and  fix  the 

* ‘ Lettre  sur  ITnscription  figyptienne  du  Monument  de  Rosette,’  8vo. 
Paris,  1802.  ■ . 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  29 


value  of  some  of  the  characters  which  formed  the  proper 
names;  though,  curiously  enough,  but  little  was  done 
towards  the  decipherment  of  the  hieroglyphic  part  of 
the  inscription.  A study  of  the  Greek  and  demotic  parts 
of  the  inscription  showed  that  the  words  Alexander  and 
Alexandria  in  the  fourth  and  seventeenth  lines  of  the 
Greek  inscriptions  corresponded  to  two  other  groups  in 
the  second  and  tenth  line  of  the  demotic  inscription  ; 
that  a group  of  characters,  repeated  about  thirty  times 
in  the  demotic  or  enchorial  inscriptions,  corresponded  to 
the  word  ‘ king  ’ in  the  Greek ; and  that  a group  of 
characters,  recurring  fourteen  times  in  the  demotic  or 
enchorial,  corresponded  to  the  word  Ptolemy  which 
occurs  eleven  times  in  the  Greek,  etc.^ 

All  these  little  discoveries  were  helps  towards  the 
grand  object  of  the  decipherment  of  the  Egyptian 
hieroglyphics ; but  it  seems  very  probable  that  this 
would  have  been  accomplished  much  sooner  had  not  the 
scholars  of  the  day  had  their  heads  filled  with  ideas  on 
the  subject  which  not  only  led  them  astray,  but  which 
stopped  the  progress  of  the  work  ; though  wh)-  they  held 
their  peculiar  views,  or  from  whence  they  obtained  them, 
is  hard  to  say.  As  an  example  of  these.  Dr.  Birch 
says  ‘ the  Chevalier  Palin,  in  1802-4,  did  not  hesitate 
to  a-ssert  that  it  was  only  necessary  to  translate  the 
Psalms  of  David  into  Chinese,  and  write  them  in  the 

‘ Dr.  Birch,  ‘ Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Egyptian  Hieroglyphs,’  p.  194  ; 
and  see  Young  in  the  ‘Encyclopaedia  Britannica London,  1828,  art. 
Hieroglyphics. 


30 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


ancient  character  of  that  language,  in  order  to  reproduce 
the  Egyptian  papyri,  and  that  these  latter  contained  many 
Biblical  books.  In  1806  M.  von  Hammer  had  given  to 
the  world  the  translation  of  the  work  of  some  Arabic 
charlatan,  which  professed  to  explain  the  hieroglyphics. 
Lenoir,  in  1810,  considered  them  to  be  Hebrew  docu- 
ments. An  anonymous  author,  in  1812,  thought  that 
the  inscription  of  the  portico  of  Dendera  contained  a 
translation  into  hieroglyphs  of  the  Hundredth  Psalm.’^ 

If  possible,  still  more  absurd  statements  on  the  subject 
of  the  contents  of  Egyptian  inscriptions  were  made  : it 
was  gravely  asserted  that  one  text  contained  an  account 
bf  a battle  between  the  wicked  and  the  good  in  the  early 
days  of  tlje  Egyptian  empire  about  4000  B.C.  ; that 
portions  of  the  Bible  would  be  found  in  another,  and  that 
a third  contained  abstruse  philosophical  ideas.  It  is  sad 
to  see  what  an  amount  of  learning  and  energy  was 
utterly  wasted  in  the  attempt  to  prove  these  absurd 
theories. 

But  among  all  this  chaos  and  confusion  there  were 
two  men  quietly  working  at  the  decipherment  of 
Egyptian  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  and  independently 
of  each  other,  viz.,  Thomas  Young,  born  1773,  and 
Erangois  Champollion,  born  at  Grenoble  in  1790.  It 
was  suggested  to  Young  that  the  unknown  language  of 
the  Rosetta  Stone  was  capable  of  being  resolved  into  an 
alphabet  of  thirty  letters  f and  a very  brief  account  of 

- ' Dr.  Birch,  in  Wilkinson’s  ‘The  Egyptians,’  p.  194. 

- By  Prof.  Vater,  ibid.,  p.  195. 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  3 I 


his  labours  is  as  follows.  He  published  some  account  of 
the  demotic  or  enchorial  writing  in  the  ‘Journal  of  the 
Society  of  Antiquaries’  in  1817;  he  was  not  very 
successful  in  identifying  the  groups  of  hieroglyphs, 
though  after  a time  he  found  out  the  name  of  Ptolemy, 
and  that  the  first  hieroglyph  in  the  name  was  the 
equivalent  of  the  demotic  or  enchorial  form.  He 
obtained  this  result  by  arguing  that  if  the  demotic  was 
phonetic,  the  hieroglyphic  must  be  also.  He  picked  out 
from  the  inscriptions  the  cartouches  of  Ptolemy  and 
Berenice  ; and  in  each  of  these  he  identified  the  phonetic 
value  of  some  of  the  characters  ; but  when  he  tried  to 
read  other  names  by  these  he  failed  ; for  example,  he 
read  Autocrator  for  Arsinoe,  and  Caesar  for  Euergetes. 
His  contribution  to  the  decipherment  amounted  to  the 
identification  of  five  characters,  and  this  is  all  that  can  be 
said.  Much  of  his  work,  as  Dr.  Birch  has  said,  is 
‘ beneath  criticism,’  and  he  failed  alike  by  attributing 
wrong  values  to  some  of  the  characters,  and  by  his 
interpretation  of  the  meaning  of  them.  As  a physicist, 
however,  Thomas  Young  was  a great  thinker,  and  a very 
celebrated  man  : but  it  is  not  true  that  he  deciphered 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  or  even  that  his  labours 
assisted  the  real  decipherer,  Champollion  ; because  he 
had  studied  and  knew  a great  deal  more  about  demotic 
rather  than  the  hieroglyphic  language. 

About  the  year  1818,  Champollion  began  the  study  of 
Egyptian.  He  had  busied  himself  before  this  date  in 
studying  the  Coptic  language  and  the  geography  of 


32 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


ancient  Egypt  ; and  as  he  had  read  and  studied  all  that 
the  ancients  had  written  upon  the  subject  of  Egyptian, 
he  was  exceedingly  well  prepared  to  grapple  with  the 
difficult  task  before  him.  The  unfortunate  Belzoni  had 
found  at  Philie  a small  obelisk  which  had  a Greek 
inscription  on  the  base,  and  one  in  hieroglyphics'  on 
the  shaft.  A copy  of  the  Greek  text  was  sent  in  1822 
to  Letronne,  and  afterwards  another  containing  the 
hieroglyphs.  He  at  once  considered  that  the  latter 
must  contain  the  same  matter  as  the  former.  Here 
Champollion’s  work  began.  It  was  argued  that  the 
subject  matter  of  the  Greek  would  be  translated  into 
hieroglyphs,  but  as  the  Greek  proper  names  rvould  not 
give  any  sense  in  Egyptian,  they  could  not  be  translated  ; 
therefore  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  sounds  which 
formed  the  proper  names  in  Greek  should  be  written  in 
Egyptian  characters.  If  this  argument  is  correct,  certain 
phonetic  signs  or  characters  stand  revealed. 

In  the  Egyptian  text  of  the  obelisk  we  have  a group  of 
signs  enclosed  in  an  oval,  and  this  group  is  repeated  a 
large  number  of  times.  Now  the  name  of  Ptolemy  occurs 
in  the  Greek  several  times,  therefore  this  group  of  hiero- 
glyphs must  represent  the  name  Ptolemy.  If  this  is 
the  case,  then  the  first  sign  is  P,  the  second  T,  and  so  on. 
Now  the  way  to  prove  if  these  signs  have  been  rightly 
read,  is  to  apply  them  to  other  names  written  both  in 
hieroglyphs  and  in  Greek  where  these  same  signs  or 
letters  occur  or  are  supposed  to  occur.  The  Greek 
inscription  mentioned  above  gave  the  name  of  a king 


DECIPHERMENT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  33 


called  Ptolemy,  and  of  a queen  called  Cleopatra  ; on 
comparing  the  hieroglyphic  signs  which  were  supposed  to 
be  the  equivalent  of  the  Greek  name  Ptolemaios,  with  the 
group  on  the  Rosetta  Stone  also  supposed  to  be  Ptolemaios, 
they  were  found  to  correspond  exactly  ; hence  it  was 
certain  that  the  group  was  the  Greek  name  Ptolemy 
written  in  hieroglyphic  letters.  If  now  the  first  name  on 
the  obelisk  of  Philae  was  that  of  Ptolemy,  the  second 
must  be  that  of  Cleopatra. 

The  following  is  the  way  in  which  the  names  Ptolemy 
and  Cleopatra  are  written  in  Egyptian  characters  : — • 


I.  Cleopatra. 


II.  Ptolemy,  living  for  ever,  beloved  of  the  god  Ptah. 


Next,  Champollion  supposed  that  each  hieroglyph  had 
the  value  of  the  initial  syllable  of  the  object  which  is 
represented,^  and  re-writing  these  names  with  numbers 
attached  to  each  sign*  we  have : — 


I.  Cleopatra. 


2.  3.  4. 

5.  6.  7. 

8.  9.  10.  11.  N 

^ (|  -^l 

^ ® J 

* Dr.  Birch,  in  Wilkinson’s  ‘The  Egyptians,’  p.  199. 


C 


34 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


II.  Ptolemy. 


Now,  sign  No.  i in  the  name  Cleopatra  represents 
a ‘ knee,’  and  as  the  Coptic^  word  for  knee  begins  with  k, 
this  sign  should  be  K. 


Sign  No.  2 in  the  same  name  represents  a ‘lion 
as  the  Coptic  word  for  lion  begins  with  /,  this  sign 
should  be  L.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  same  sign 
occurs  in  the  name  of  Ptolemy,  No.  4. 

Sign  No.  3 in  the  same  name  represents  a ‘ reed,’  and 
forms  Nos.  6 and  7 in  the  name  Ptolemy;  as  the 
Coptic  word  for  reed  begins  with  a,  this  sign  should  be 
A or  E. 

Sign  No.  4 in  the  same  name  represents  a ‘ noose,’  and 
must  be  equivalent  to  O.  Sign  No.  5 in  the  same  name, 
being  the  same  as  No.  i in  the  name  Ptolemy,  must 
therefore  be  P.  Sign  No.  6 in  the  same  name  represents 
an  ‘ eagle  ; ’ and  as  the  Coptic  word  for  eagle  begins  with 
a,  and  as  it  is  the  same  as  sign  No.  9 in  the  name 
Cleopatra  in  the  place  where  the  a recurs,  it  must  be  A. 
Sign  No.  7 represents  a ‘ hand  ;’  as  the  Coptic  name 
for  hand  begins  with  /,  this  sign  should  be  T.  Sign 
No.  8,  in  the  same  name,  represents  a ‘mouth;’  as  the 
Coptic  word  for  mouth  begins  with  r,  this  sign  should 
be  R.  Of  sign  No.  9 we  have  already  spoken.  Signs 

’ We  omit  here  the  other  signs  which  are  given  in  the  cartouche  above, 
as  they  form  titles  of  the  king,  and  are  not  necessary  for  our  present 
purpose. 

^ The  ancient  Egyptian  language  is  the  mother  of  Coptic. 


DECIPHERMENT  OE  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  35 

No.  10  (the  same  as  No.  2 in  the  name  Ptolemy)  and 
No.  1 1 have  no  equivalent  in  the  Greek  ; but  subsequent 
researches  have  proved  that  these  signs  are  placed 
after  the  name  of  a female.  If  we  look  at  the  signs  in 
the  name  of  Ptolemaios,  we  find  that  only  Nos.  5 and  8 
remain  without  values,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  from  the 
Greek  that  they  must  represent  M and  S respectively. 

Going  back  now  to  the  signs  ^ ^ ^ unnumbered 

cartouche,  we  recognize  the  first  two  0 at  once,  for  we 
have  had  them  both  in  the  names  of  Ptolemy  and 
Cleopatra  ; and  as  the  Greek  version  tells  us  that 
Ptolemy  is  ‘ beloved  of  Phtha,’  we  know  that  the  third 
sign  I must  have  the  value  /q  and  that  the  fourth  must 
mean  ‘beloved.’  Champollion,  after  studying  the  other 
names  of  the  later  rulers  of  Egypt,  was  enabled  to  put 
together  a very  fair  list  of  values  of  the  signs,  and  b)' 
continuous  work  and  study  he  succeeded  in  finding  out 
many  of  the  more  difficult  values  of  rare  and  uncommon 
signs.  All  difficulties  were  not  yet  overcome,  for  some 
of  the  signs  were  syllabic ; but  little  by  little  these 
difficulties  melted  away,  and  it  became  certain  that  the 
entire  solution  of  the  problem  of  Egyptian  decipher- 
ment was  not  very  far  off. 

Eor  about  nine  years  Champollion  pursued  his 
studies  in  the  most  unremitting  manner,  and  work  after 
work  issued  from  his  pen,  containing  texts,  translations, 
explanations  and  information  of  the  greatest  value  about 
ancient  Egypt  and  its  people. 


C 2 


36 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


But  although  ChampolHon  had,  quite  alone,  set  the 
decipherment  of  Egyptian  upon  a sure  and  firm  base, 
there  lacked  not  men  who  started  new  theories  on  the 
subject,  and  fought  for  them  with  a degree  of  fierceness 
and  zeal  that  now  appear  almost  incredible.  A 
large  number  of  people  objected  to  such  a simple 
explanation  of  the  hieroglyphics,  and  wished  and  hoped 
to  find  in  them  something  of  the  mysterious  and  the 
marvellous.  Others  maintained  that  the  language  was 
sacred,  and  proceeded  to  divide  the  signs  into  classes, 
to  understand  which  is  more  difficult  than  Egyptian 
itself.  Worse  than  all,  there  still  appeared  works 
containing  explanations  of  Egyptian  texts  based  upon 
the  old  ideographic  theory;*  and  Klaproth  attacked 
Champollion  on  every  possible  occasion,  relying  upon 
his  having  found  out  a few  small  and  unimportant  details 
in  which  Champollion  had  tripped  ; while  others  still 
believed  in  the  absurd  interpretations  published  by 
Kircher  in  his  ‘ (Edipus  Aegyptiacus.’  Little  by  little, 
however,  Champollion’s  system  was  gaining  ground,  and 
many  scholars  who  published  works  at  that  time 
hastened  to  supplement  their  arguments  by  proofs  drawn 
from  the  new  source  of  information. 

About  the  year  1837  the  late  Dr.  Lepsius  published 
a letter  to  Rosellini,  in  which  he  analysed  and  laid  down 
the  structure  of  the  language  in  his  usual  masterly 

* For  example,  Janelli  on  the  Rosetta  Stone,  published  under  the  title  of 
‘ Fundanienta  Hermeneutica  Hieroglyphicse  Crypticte  veterum  Gentium.’ 
8vo.  Neapol.,  1830. 


DECIPHERMliNT  OF  THE  EGYPTIAN  HIEROGLYPHICS.  37 


manner;  and  from  this  time  onwards  the  good  work 
advanced  rapidly.  Students  arose  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  and  elsewhere  ; but  until  very  recently 
there  remained  some  who  persistently  refused  to  acknow- 
ledge that  Champollion’s  system  of  decipherment  was  the 
true  one  ; and  so  late  as  1862  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis  maintained 
in  his  ‘ Astronomy  of  the  Ancients  ’ that,  practically, 
the  tradition  of  the  Egyptian  language  had  not  been 
preserved  unbroken,  either  in  v.'riting  or  orally,  and 
since  a period  had  elapsed  during  which  it  was  entirely 
forgotten,  it  could  never  be  restored.  For  the  refutation 
of  this  gentleman’s  ideas,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
learned  and  masterly  article  by  Mr.  Renouf  in  the 
‘Atlantis,’  VoL  IV.,  1861,  pp.  23-57. 

Thus  has  grown  the  edifice  of  the  decipherment  of 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics,  the  stones  bearing  them, 
some  little,  some  big,  having  been  shaped  ages  ago  in 
many  distant  lands.  By  reading  two  names  on  the 
obelisk  of  Philce  and  on  the  Rosetta  Stone,  and  by 
spelling  out  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  Persian  names  of  the 
rulers  of  Egypt,  has  this  great  work  been  accomplished. 


38 


CHAPTER  II. 

The  Egyptian  Language  and  Writing. 

The  Egyptians  used  a variety  of  substances  for  writing 
upon,  such  as  stone,  wood,  leather,  linen,  and  papyrus. 
When  stone  of  any  sort  was  used  for  this  purpose  the 
characters  were  cut  into  it  with  a chisel  : and  many  of 
the  inscriptions  upon  sandstone  and  the  like  were  filled 
in  with  the  most  beautiful  colours.  Unfortunately, 
however,  much  of  the  colour  has  disappeared  and  now,  in 
many  cases,  only  traces  of  it  can  be  seen.  In  the  better 
class  of  sculptures  the  details  of  the  object  represented 
are  most  carefully  carved,  and  some  characters  are  cut 
into  the  stone  to  the  depth  of  nearly  an  inch.  In  the 
case  of  wood,  the  characters  are  sometimes  cut  as  in 
stone,  and  sometimes  merely  painted. 

Papyrus  was  the  material  which  was  in  the  greatest 
demand  for  making  copies  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead, 
literary  compositions,  and  official  documents.  The 
plant  grew  in  Upper  Egypt,  the  Delta,  and  other  parts 
of  the  country.  To  fit  it  for  writing  purposes  the 
interior  of  the  stalks  were  cut  into  thin  slices  in  the 
direction  of  their  length  ; these  were  laid  on  a board 
in  a row,  and  similar  slices  were  placed  upon  them  at 


ooden  palette  with  reeds  for  writing  Roll  ol  papyrus  in  the  British  Museum, 

wliich  belonged  originally  to  “ Ainasis 
the  good  god,  and  lord  of  the  two 
countries.”  Bri  ish  Museum. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  WRITING, 


41 


right  angles  ; and  when  their  surfaces  had  been  joined 
by  a kind  of  gum  or  glue,  and  pressed  and  dried,  the 
papyrus  was  completed  Inscribed  papyri  are  of  different 
widths,  viz.,  six,  eleven,  twelve  and  a half,  thirteen  and 
even  fourteen  and  a half  inches  ; while  their  length  varies 
from  a few  inches  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.^ 

The  scribe  wrote  on  papyrus  with  a reed,  the 
hieroglyphs  being  generally  traced  in  outline.  He  carried 
his  inks  in  small  hollows  in  his  palette.  The  greater 
part  of  the  ordinary  inscriptions  on  papyrus  are  written 
with  black  ink,  but  directions  for  the  repetition  of 
certain  passages  or  rubrics,  and  the  initial  paragraphs,  are 
written  with  red.  Texts  written  in  other  colours  are  found, 
but  they  are  not  common.  Where  it  was  possible  the 
scribe  represented  an  object  in  its  natural  colour  ; he 
made  the  sun  red,  the  moon  yellow,  trees,  plants,  and  all 
vegetables,  green  ; but  objects  requiring  out  of  the  way 
colours  were  not  so  well  done,  owing  to  the  comparatively 
limited  supply  of  colours  at  the  disposal  of  the  scribe. 
Reeds  cut  like  modern  pens  were  also  used  for  writing, 
and  specimens  of  these  may  be  seen  in  the  British 
Museum  (North  Gallery,  2nd  Egyptian  Room). 

The  scribe’s  palettes  were  made  of  wood,  ivory,  and 
stone  ; they  were  of  different  lengths  and  widths,  varying 
from  five  or  six  inches  to  twenty  in  length,  and  from 
two  to  three  inches  in  breadth.  They  were  frequently 

* Wilkinson’s  ‘Ancient  Egyptians,’  ii.  p.  180. 

^ Dr.  Birch,  in  Wilkinson’s  ‘Ancient  Egyptians,’  ii.  p.  182;  Bunsen’s 

‘ Egypt,’  V.  p.  590. 


42 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


inscribed,  and  at  times  the  characters  were  most 
beautifully  inlaid  with  lapis  lazuli.  There  is  an  oblong 
hollow  in  them  wherein  the  writing  reeds  may  be  placed  ; 
and  at  the  end  are  generally  shallow  holes  for  the  ink, 
traces  of  which,  of  a red  and  black  colour,  still  remain 
in  some  of  them.  Palettes  are  sometimes  dedicated  to 
the  god  Thoth,  and  the  British  Museum  possesses 
among  others  one  which  originally  belonged  to  a 
scribe  of  the  time  of  Amenophis  III.  (about  B.C.  1500), 
and  one  of  a scribe  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Rameses 
II.  (about  B.C.  1350).  In  this  latter,  five  of  the  scribe’s 
reeds  still  remain.  The  office  of  scribe  was  very  im- 
portant, and  was  generally  held  by  a person  belonging 
to  the  priestly  or  first  caste  of  Egyptians.^ 

The  hierogylphics  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  : (i ) 
those  representing  ideas,  and  (2)  those  used  for  sounds. 

For  example,  the  picture  of  an  obelisk,  expressed 
that  object  ; a vulture,  expressed  that  bird  ; and  so 

on.  Sometimes,  however,  the  cause  was  put  for  the  effect, 
and  the  reverse  : thus  a palette  and  reed,  represented 

‘ writing  ’ (also  ‘ scribe  ’)  ; and  dishevelled  hair,  stood 
for  ‘ grieving,’  because  the  hair  was  disturbed  and  uncared 
for  in  a time  of  trouble.  It  will  be  readily  understood 
that  the  ideographic  part  of  the  writing  is  much  older 
than  the  phonetic  ; and  in  the  very  early  texts  we  find  the 
use  of  ideographs  greater  than  in  those  of  a later  period. 

' Wilkinson’s  ‘Ancient  Egyptians,’  i.  p.  157. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  WRITING.  43 


This  is  what  one  would  expect,  because  all  nations  u.se 
a pictorial  language  long  before  they  come  to  phonetics. 

The  pictorial  method  of  representation  in  the  texts  is 
exceedingly  useful,  for  it  frequently  suggests  the  right 
meaning  of  a word  ; and  where  new  words  are  found 
phonetically  spelt,  but  without  ideographs,  it  is  often 
difficult  to  find  out  what  they  mean.  An  ideograph 
was  often  repeated  three  or  more  times,  to  express  the 

plural,  thus : — 

‘glorified  souls,’  j|  jj  j|  ‘seats,’ 

‘roads,’  and  111111111111111111  ‘ the  two  cycles  of 
the  gods.’  It  mu.st  be  mentioned  that  every  hieroglyph 
could  be  used  to  express  the  sound  of  the  object  which 
it  represented.^  Custom,  however,  set  aside  a certain 
number  which  were  used  to  express  the  sounds  of  other 
objects.  For  example  represents  a ‘ plough,’  and 
a ‘mouth,’  but  means  ‘beloved  ;’  <z:>  represents 
a ‘ mouth,’  and  ‘water’;  but  means  ‘name.’ 

/VWWS 

Under  the  class  of  phonetics  must  also  be  mentioned 
those  which  have  syllabic  values,  such  as  iner, 


\\ 


‘ bones,’  liiiimr  ‘ doors,’  T T 'I  * gods,’ 


hem,  and  X37  neb.  A large  number  of  these  are  used 
as  determinative  of  sound  ; for  example,  the  value  of 


f but  we  find  i.e.,  a-fi-x  + the  syllable 

•^;also  he., 

I AAAA/SA  1 


a-a  -f  the  syllable  and  so  on. 


* Dr.  Birch,  in  Bunsen’s  ‘ Egypt,’  v,  p.  597. 


44 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


Certain  hieroglyphs  were  used  as  Determinatives. 
By  a Determinative  is  meant  a sign  which  represents 
the  idea,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  of  the  word  written  ; 
and  a determinative  could  be  placed  either  before  or 
after  a word.  For  example,  in  the  word  for  ‘ child,’ 

^ the  first  three  signs  give  the  word  for 

child,  and  then  follows  the  determinative,  which  is  the 
picture  of  a child  ; the  word  i \\  i d^s,  means 

‘tortoise;’  but  it  is  written  in  the  texts  with  the 
picture  for  ‘tortoise  ’ after  it ; so,  csri  The  few 

following  words  will  illustrate  the  way  in  which  the 
phonetic  signs  and  ideographs  are  employed  in  writing 
words  : — 


ses/^ 


bird’s  nest. 


aua 


emsuJi 


qerJiu  ...  night. 


man 


menfat  ...  soldier. 


tart 


scorpion. 


to  shine. 


o.x. 


crocodile. 


cat. 


worm. 


THE  EGYPT[AN  LANGUAGE  AND  WRITING.  45 


inayait  ...  pair  of  scales. 


j]  W 


¥ 


ddit 


aaani 


iierau 


bee. 

moon. 

ape. 

vulture. 


The  number  of  hieroglyphic  signs  may  be  considered 
to  be  about  two  thousand,  and  a short  list  of  the 
commoner  phonetics  is  as  follows  : — 


J 


ra 


a 

d 

d 

b 

P 

f 

h 

h (or  kh) 


W 


G 


i 


(S 


s 

s (or  s/i) 
t 

th 

t 


X 


The  arrangement  of  the  hieroglyphics  in  inscriptions 
varies,  but  generally  they  face  to  the  right,  and  are 
read  from  right  to  left  like  Arabic,  Syriac,  Hebrew,  etc. 
Sometimes  they  face  to  the  left,  and  are  to  be  read  from 
left  to  right ; but  very  often  they  are  arranged  in 
perpendicular  rows,  with  carefully  drawn  lines  separating 


46 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


each  row.  Instances  have  occurred  where  the  characters 
face  in  one  direction,  but  are  to  be  read  in  the  other. 

The  hieroglyphics  were  particularly  useful  for  the 
purpose  of  ornament ; and  when  each  hieroglyphic  is 
painted  in  the  colours  which  most  nearly  re.sembles  the 
object  which  it  represents,  the  effect  is  vivid  and 
gorgeous.  The  scribe  or  mason  frequently  sacrificed 
the  strict  order  of  the  letters  in  a word  to  his  love  of 
symmetrical  arrangement : in  the  papyri,  however,  the 
right  order  is  usually  kept.  For  an  example  of  the 
ornamental  effect  produced  by  a collection  of  hieroglyphs, 
see  the  extract  from  the  text  inscribed  upon  the  Pyramid 
of  Pepi,  printed  round  pages  i lO,  in  : and  the  following 
is  a specimen  of  Egyptian  with  interlinear  transliteration, 
and  literal  translation. 

Specimen  of  Interlinp:ar  Transliteration 


AND  Translation.^ 


au  arna  hesest  ret  hereret  nutaru  heres 


Done  have  I behests  of  men  and  the  will  of  the  gods  ; 


au  ta  - na  ta  en  heqr  sesau  - na 

whei'efore  given  have  I bread  to  the  hungry,  satiated  have  I 


atet  au  ses  - na  nutar  em  pa  - f an 

the  indigent,  followed  have  I the  god  in  house  his,  not 


' See  ‘Trans.  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,’  vol.  viii.  p.  309. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  WRITING.  47 


aa  re -a  em  s'enit  an 

hath  magnified  month  my  against  superior  officers,  not  is 


J\ 

pet  em 
there  stretch  in  stride 


I 

nemt  - a 


I 


p o <=• 

^ /I 

AA/VWV  c£ I 


sem  - a her  sa  xent 
my,  walk ' I according  to  measure. 


ar  - na  em  mat  mer  en  suten 
Done  have  I laiv  beloved  by  the  king. 


13- 


/WWW 


re;^  - kua  entet 
knew  I what 


utu-nef  set 
commanded  he  it. 


/WWV 

3.^  ^ 

res  - na 
ivatchcd  I 


her  ast  - a er  seqa  baiu  - f tua  - na  tua  - f 

at  seat  my  to  exalt  zuill  his,  rose  I for  ivorship  his 


hru  neb  er  ta  - na  ab  - a %enti  t'et  - f 

day  every,  gave  I heart  my  to  what  said  he 


an  mahi  her  s'a  - nef  ^er  - a 


ivithout  hesitating  at  what  determined  he  | 


48 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NII.E. 


tet  - na  metrit  (?)  hna  metit 

took  I uprightness  and  fairness. 


peh  - na  enen  her  kar  - a qebeb  hesna  - ua 

arrived  I at  zvhat  zvas  for  silence,  refreshing,  favoured  me 


^37 
neb  - a 


I 

her 


^ 

AAAAW  ^ ^ 

men^-a 


AAAWA 

maa  - nef 


rut 


lord  the  king  my  for  beneficeiice  zny,  sazv  he  that  vigorous 


aa  - a an  ab  - a se;^;enti  ast  - a 

zvcre  hands  my  through  heart  zny  advancing  seat  my. 


Hieroglyphics  were  employed  for  inscriptions  on  public 
monuments,  etc,  but  two  other  characters  of  writing 
are  found,  the  hieratic,  and  the  demotic  or  enchorial  ; 
this  latter  is  not  comparatively  very  ancient,  and  a 
specimen  of  it  is  given  in  the  reproduction  of  the  Rosetta 
Stone  p.  20.  The  hieratic  was  the  cursive  hand,  and 
was  much  used  by  the  priests  in  making  their  reports 
of  government  transactions,  and  in  writing  down  literary 
compositions.  It  was  taken  from  the  hieroglyphic,  as 
the  following  example,  with  the  hieroglyphic  transcription 
beneath,  will  show. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  WRITING.  49 


Hieratic  Writing.' 

Transcription. 


To  what  group  or  family  of  languages  Egyptian 
belongs,  is  at  present  an  undecided  point : there  is  a 
great  influx  of  Semitic  words  about  1400  B.C.  ; for 
further  information  on  this  subject  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  works  of  Benfey,  Lepsius,  Brugsch,  Renan,  and 
others. 

' See  Birch,  ‘ Select  Papyri  in  the  Hieratic  Character,’  Part  II,  pi.  xi, 
page  5,  line  9,  and  page  6,  line  i.  The  hieratic  text  is  written  from  right 
to  left,  but  the  hieroglyphs  read  the  opposite  way. 


D 


50 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  Land  of  Egypt,  its  People  and  their 
History. 

• 

Egypt  lies  between  the  twenty-fourth  and  thirty-second 
parallels  of  north  latitude,  in  the  north-east  of  Africa  ; 
it  is  about  six  hundred  miles  long,  and  is  really  com- 
prised of  a strip  of  land  on  each  bank  of  the  Nile. 
This  strip  varies  in  width  from  ten  to  thirty  miles. 
The  Egyptians  called  their  country  Kem,  i.e.,  ‘ the 
black,’  because  of  the  very  dark  colour  of  the  soil.  It 
bore  a variety  of  names,  each  having  some  particular 
application  ; and  among  these  must  come  Ta-mera, 
which  means  the  ‘ land  of  the  inundation.’  The 
Assyrians  called  the  land  Musiir,  the  Hebrews  Misraiin, 
and  the  Arabs  to  this  day  Misr.  The  Egyptian  kings 
called  themselves  ‘ lords  of  the  two  countries,’  thereby 
indicating  that  the  land  was  divided  into  two  great 
parts,  the  north  and  the  south  : very  probably  a 
remembrance  of  the  ‘ double  ’ land  is  preserved  in  the 
Hebrew  name  Misraim,  which  is  a dual  form.  The 
kings  are  also  called  on  the  monuments  ‘ lords  of  the 
white  and  red  crown ; ’ the  former  signifying  their  rule 
over  Upper  Egypt,  and  the  latter  their  dominion  over 


\ 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC. 


51 


Lower  Egypt.  Upper  Egypt  was  divided  into  twenty- 
two  nomes,  and  Lower  Egypt  into  twenty.^  Hitherto 
the  name  ‘ Egypt  ’ has  remained  unexplained  ; but 
.some  have  supposed  that  it  is  derived  from  Ha-ka-ptah, 
{i.e.,  the  temple  of  the  genius  of  Ptah),  the  sacred  name 
of  Memphis. 

From  what  country  did  the  Egyptians  come  ? 
Ethnologists  and  anthropologists,  having  examined  a 
large  number  of  skulls  of  mummies,  have  come  to  the 
conclusion  that  the  Egyptians  belong  to  the  Caucasian  \j 
race.  Hence  it  is  generally  understood  now  that  some 
thousands  of  years  before  the  Christian  era  (how  many 
it  is  quite  impossible  to  say)  the  nation  which 
afterwards  inhabited  the  Nile  set  out  from  Asia,  ful- 
some reason  still  unexplained,  journeyed  westward, 
and  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  entered  Africa,  and 
settling  down  by  the  Nile,  founded  there  a mighty 
kingdom.  This  agrees  too  with  what  is  stated  in  the 
table  of  nations  given  by  Moses,  who  says,  ‘ And  the 
sons  of  Ham  ; Cush,  and  Mizraim,  and  Phut,  and 
Canaan.’^  Now  Ham  (or  Kham)  is  the  same  as  Khem, 
Egypt,  and  a proof  of  this  may  be  deduced  from  the 
Psalms,  where  it  is  said,  ‘And  smote  all  the  firstborn  in 
Egypt ; the  chief  of  their  strength  in  the  tabernacles  of 
Ham; ’3  and  again,  ‘Wondrous  works  in  the  land  of 
Ham,  and  terrible  things  by  the  Red  Sea.’^  Now  the 
Mizraim  mentioned  in  the  table  of  nations  is  Egypt  itself. 

' For  a list,  see  Brugsch,  ‘ Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,’  ii.  p.  8. 

^ Gen.  X.  6.  ^ Ps.  Ixxviii.  51.  ■*  Ps.  cvi.  22. 

D 2 


52 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


As  for  the  other  sons  of  Ham,  the  inhabitants  of 
Kush,  i.e.,  the  region  called  after  the  son  of  Ham,  are 
represented  on  the  Egyptian  monuments.  Their  bodily 
appearance  is  the  same,  though  their  skin  is  a little 
darker,  and  at  the  outset  they  appear  to  have  had  a 
religion  and  speech  akin  to  that  of  the  Egyptians.^  We 
find  Phut,  most  probably,  in  the  Punt  of  the  inscriptions, 
the  land  from  whence  spices  came,  which  was  situated 
to  the  south  of  Egypt  on  both  sides  of  the  Red  Sea.  As 
early  as  2500  years  before  Christ,  the  hieroglyphics  tell  us 
that  a king  of  Egypt  sent  one  of  his  people  called  Anti, 
to  bring  back  a peculiarly  valuable  kind  of  frankincense 
from  this  land.  The  fourth  son,  Canaan,  is  represented 
by  the  original  inhabitants  of  Canaan,  who  were  pro- 
bably near  relatives  of  the  Egyptians.  It  has  been 
thought  by  some  scholars  that  there  are  indications  in 
the  inscriptions  which  would  lead  one  to  suppose  that 
the  Egyptians  considered  that  the  home  of  the  race  was 
the  Nile  ; this  idea,  however,  has  never  been  worked  out. 
Some  again,  following  a Greek  tradition,  have  thought 
that  the  civilization  of  Egypt  came  from  Ethiopia ; but 
all  modern  researches  show  that  this  idea  has  no  ground- 
work of  truth. 

The  Egyptians  of  the  later  empire  believed  that  men 
had  been  made  out  of  clay  upon  a potter’s  wheel- 
They  believed  that  the  god  Harmachis^  attacked  his  foes, 
who  fled  in  all  directions  from  before  him.  Those  who 

' Wiedemann,  ‘ ^gyptische  Geschichte,’  p.  23. 

" Chabas,  ‘Etudes,’  p.  i ; Naville,  ‘ Mythe  d’Horus.’ 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC. 


53 


came  to  the  south  became  the  Cushites,  those  who  came 
to  the  north  became  the  Amu,  those  who  came  to  the 
west  the  Libyans,  and  those  who  came  to  the  east  the 
S/iasu;  and  thus  were  the  four  races  of  mankind  made. 
Of  the  Amu  more  will  be  said  further  on  ; for  it  was 
from  this  race  that  the  Khita  nation,  so  celebrated  for 
having  waged  war  successfully  with  Rameses  II.,  and 
recently  identified  with  the  Biblical  Hittites,  sprang. 

What  was  the  Egyptian  like  in  stature  ? His  head  was 
large,  his  forehead  square,  his  eyes  large,  his  cheeks  full, 
his  mouth  wide,  his  nose  short  and  rounded,  and  his  lips 
thick. ^ 

The  ancient  history  of  Egypt  goes  back  into  a far  dis- 
tant past.  The  exact  time  when  the  early  settlers  on  the 
Nile  first  made  their  home  in  the  ‘ black  ’ land  is  quite 
unknown  ; and  who  ruled  them  and  gave  them  laws  is, 
historically,  also  unknown.  Only  one  thing  about  the 
matter  is  quite  certain,  and  that  is  that  the  migration 
from  the  East  must  have  taken  place  some  thousands  of 
years  before  Christ. 

The  Egyptians  believed  that  the  first  three  dynasties 
of  kings  who  ruled  over  Egypt  were  composed  of  gods, 
Avho  reigned  in  succession,  and  of  a series  of  beings  who 
were  called  ‘ the  followers  of  Horus.’^ 

The  first  dynasty  consisted  of  a number  of  gods, 
Ptah,  Ra,  Shu,  Seb,  Osiris,  Set  or  Typhon,  and  Horus  : 
these  were  supposed  to  have  reigned  for  12,300  years, 

' Wiedemann,  ‘ jLgyptische  Geschichte,’  p.  25. 

^ Maspero,  ‘ Histoire  Ancienne,  p.  18. 


54 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


according  to  Manetho,  a celebrated  priest  of  Heliopolis 
who  flourished  about  B.  C.  261.  Of  the  next  two 
dynasties  we  only  know  that  they  were  termed,  it  is 
supposed,  ‘the  followers  of  Horus.’  So  that  at  present 
nothing  is  really  known  of  the  Egyptian  rulers  before 
Menes,  the  first  historical  king  of  Egypt.  Many  dates 
have  been  fixed  by  scholars  for  the  reign  of  this  king : 
Champollion-Figeac  thought  about  B.C.  5867,  Bunsen 
3623,  Lepsius  3892,  Brugsch  4455,  and  Wilkinson  2320; 
but  it  must  be  understood  that  a correct  chronology  of 
the  early  empire  of  Egypt  is  not  at  present  possible,  for 
only  approximate  data  can  be  given.^ 

[jj  Mena  or  Menes,  the  first  king  of  Egypt, 

came  from  the  town  of  Teni,  the  Greek  This,  near 
Abydos.  According  to  Herodotus,  he  built  the  great 
temple  of  Ptah,  established  a regular  worship  there,  and 
is  said  to  have  founded  the  great  city  of  Memphis, 
which  name  means  ‘ the  good  place.’  He  built  a large 
dyke  to  protect  this  city,  and  it  is  that  which  even 
to-day  protects  Gizeh  from  excessive  inundation.  He 
was  a mighty  warrior,  and  waged  war  with  the  Libyans. 
The  tradition  of  his  death  is  that  he  was  devoured  by  a 

' Since  it  is  impossible  to  give  here  an  account  of  each  king  of  Egypt 
and  his  works,  we  can  only  refer  to  the  most  important  of  them,  reserving 
our  special  attention  for  those  kings  with  whom  the  children  of  Israel 
came  in  contact.  On  pages  12  to  14  we  have  given  a list  of  the  kings  and 
the  approximate  dates  of  their  reigns  from  Brugsch’s  ‘ Egypt  under  the 
Pharaohs  : ’ and  for  fuller  information  on  matters  of  Egyptian  history  we 
refer  the  reader  to  Dr.  Birch’s  ‘Egypt,’  Wiedemann’s  ‘ Higyptische 
Geschichte,’  and  the  above-mentioned  work  of  Brugsch. 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC. 


55 


crocodile.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Athothis,  who 
is  said  to  have  written  books  on  anatomy.  Remarkably 
little  is  known  of  Menes,  for  none  of  his  inscriptions 
have  been  found  ; his  name,  however,  is  placed  first  in 
the  list  of  kings. 

The  next  Egyptian  king  of  importance  was  Ata,  or  as 
the  Greeks  called  him,  Ouenephes  ; and  he  is  famous  for 
having  built  pyramids  at  Kochome  near  Sakkarah.  Of 
the  remaining  kings  of  the  first  and  second  dynasties  but 
little  is  known.  During  the  reign  of  Necherophes  or 
Nefer-ka-Seker,  the  first  king  of  the  third  or  Memphitic 
dynasty,  we  are  told  by  Manetho  that  an  eclipse  took 
place,  and  the  Libyans,  with  whom  this  king  was 
fighting,  were  so  terrified  that  they  submitted  im- 
mediately. 

The  fourth  dynasty  was  also  from  Memphis,  and  it  was 
under  these  kings  that  Egypt  became  famous  ; it  must 
be  remembered  that  at  this  period  we  are  able  to  obtain 
information  from  the  monuments  which  the  kings  of  the 
fourth  dynasty  erected.  During  the  reign  of  Senefru 


its  first  king,  a very  valuable  mine  of 


turquoise  was  found  in  Arabia  at  Wady  Magharah,  and 
traces  of  the  workings,  etc.,  are  still  to  be  seen.  An 
invasion  of  the  Amu  took  place  in  the  reign  of  this  king, 
who  appears  to  have  been  occupied  in  various  wars. 
Some  have  thought  that  the  pyramid  of  Meydoum 
marks  the  place  of  his  sepulchre,  but  his  body  has  not 
hitherto  been  found. 


56 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


or  Cheops  (b.c.  3733),  the 
successor  of  Senefru,  is  celebrated  chiefly  for  the 
immense  pyramid,  called  ‘ Height,’  which  he  built  at 
Gizeh,  the  height  of  which  is  450  feet,  and  the  breadth 
at  the  base  746  feet.  The  pyramids  which  come  next 
in  point  of  size  are  the  pyramids  of  Chephren  and 
Mycerinus  ; the  former  is  447  feet  high,  and  measures 
690  feet  at  the  base  ; while  the  latter  is  203  feet  hi^h, 
and  measures  352  feet  at  the  base.  The  pyramids  were 
graves  ; the  plan  of  construction,  as  laid  down  by 
Lepsius,  is  as  follows  : When  a new  king  a.scended  the 
throne  he  began  at  once  to  build  a pyramid.  The 
site  having  been  chosen,  the  ground  was  levelled,  and  a 
slanting  shaft  was  bored  out  of  the  .solid  rock  ; and  at  the 
end  of  this  shaft  a rectangular  chamber  was  made,  which 
was  intended  to  hold  the  sarcophagus  containing  the 
king’s  body.  On  the  flat  site  a comparatively  small 
building  was  made,  the  outsides  of  which  were  steep 
steps.  If  the  king  died  at  this  stage  of  the  work,  he  was 
laid  in  his  sarcophagus,  and  the  steep  steps  of  the  little 
building  were  filled  up  with  triangular  pieces  of  stone, 
and  so  its  sides  became  smooth,  and  the  pyramid,  though 
little,  was  complete.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  king 
lived  another  year,  a second  layer  of  stones  was  built  on 
to  the  four  sides  of  the  pyramid  ; and  for  every  year  the 
king  lived  a fresh  layer  of  stones  was  built  on  to  the 
four  sides  ; but  the  layers  became  gradually  smaller. 
When  the  king  died  no  further  layers  were  added,  and 
the  pyramid  was  finished  either  by  the  steps  being  filled 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC.  57 


up  with  exactly  fitting  pieces  of  stone,  or  another  layer 
of  stones  was  added,  and  then  the  edges  of  the  stones 
were  chiselled  away  until  each  side  of  the  structure  was 
perfectly  smooth.  It  is  perfectly  evident  that  such  a 
tomb  might  well  be  considered  everlasting,  for  it  was 
inaccessible  to  the  attacks  of  the  elements,  and  its 
destruction  would  be  a very  difficult  piece  of  work  even 
for  modern  nations.  The  size  of  a pyramid  then,  varied 
generally  with  the  length  of  the  king’s  life  ; but  vanity 
and  a desire  to  possess  the  largest  pyramid,  may  have 
induced  a king  to  add  two  layers  or  even  more  for  each 
year  of  his  life. 

There  are  some  who  doubt  the  truth  of  this  theory 
of  pyramid  construction,  but  it  has  been  pointed  out 
that  the  nearer  the  inside  the  better  is  the  work  found 
to  be ; while  each  subsequent  layer  seems  to  have  been 
more  carelessly  and  hastily  built  than  its  fellow.^  The 
Egyptian  word  for  pyramid  is  abincr.  The  greater 
part  of  a pyramid  was  built  of  limestone,  but  red 
granite  was  used  for  certain  parts,  such  as  the 
interior  of  the  passages,  of  the  Great  Pyramid.  Small 
passages  leading  upwards  and  downwards  are  found 
inside  some  of  the  pyramids.  When  the  mummy  of 
the  king  had  been  deposited  in  the  sarcophagus  inside 
the  chamber  within  the  pyramid,  all  the  various  path- 
ways were  filled  up  with  blocks  of  stone. 

' Various  elaborate  theories  have  been  propounded  in  respect  of  the 
building  of  the  pyramids,  and  the  reader  is  referred  to  Prof  Piazzi  Smyth’s 
works,  and  ‘ The  Pyramids  and  Temples  of  Gizeh,’  by  Mr.  \V.  M.  F.  Petrie. 


58 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


Even  to  the  Egyptians,  who  were  accustomed  to 
build  pyramids,  such  constructions  must  have  appeared 
difficult ; and  an  idea  will  be  obtained  of  the  amount  of 
labour  necessary  for  the  building  of  the  pyramid  of 
Cheops,  when  we  consider  that  the  causeway  along 
which  the  stone  was  brought  took  ten  years  to  build, 
the  work  being  performed  by  a gang  of  one  hundred 
thousand  men,  changed  every  three  months  ; thus  four 
million  men  were  employed  on  this  work  alone,  while  it 
required  seven  millions  more  to  build  the  pyramid  itself.^ 

The  number  of  chambers  in  the  pyramids  has  been 
accounted  for  by  supposing  that  when  the  pyramid  was 
begun  a subterranean  chamber  was  made  for  the  royal 
tomb  : but  when  the  king  lived  long,  and  the  pyramid 
grew  larger,  they  built  another  chamber  and  left  the 
first  one  empty.  If  the  king  should  still  continue  to 
live,  and  the  pyramid  grew  very  large,  another  chamber 
was  built  to  receive  his  sarcophagus  and  mummy. 
These  first  chambers  were  then  probably  used  for  his 
queen  or  his  relatives. 

The  family  of  Cheops  was  buried  near  his  pyramid, 
and  Lepsius,  during  his  journey  across  the  plains  stretch- 
ing from  Meydoum  to  Memphis,  found  the  remains  of 
no  less  than  seventy-five  pyramids,  including  those  of 
various  members  of  the  family  of  Cheops.  Cheops 
waged  war  against  his  enemies,  and  the  rocks  in  the 
Wady  Maghara  represent  him  not  only  in  combat  with 
them,  but  victorious  over  them.  He  is  said  to  have  been 
’ Birch,  ‘ Egypt,’  p.  35. 


The  Sphinx. 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC.  6 1 

a great  tyrant  and  a very  wicked  man  ; but  Manetho 
went  so  far  as  to  say  that  in  his  old  age  he  repented  of 
his  folly  and  wrote  a book,  which  posterity  considered 
holy.  Another  story  is  that  the  Egyptian  nation  hated 
him  so  bitterly  on  account  of  the  forced  labour  which  he 
imposed  upon  them,  that  it  was  necessary  to  bury  him  in 
a subterranean  chamber  surrounded  on  all  sides  by  the 
waters  of  the  Nile.  During  the  reign  of  Cheops  a 
medical  papyrus,  now  in  the  British  Museum,  was  found 
by  a priest  in  a temple,  by  moonlight.^ 


Chephren,  the  successor  of 


Cheops,  also  built  a pyramid,  which  he  called  ‘ Great,’  near 
that  of  Cheops  ; it  is  most  beautifully  made,  but  is  not  so 
large  as  that  of  his  predecessor.  Chephren  is  also  justly 
renowned  for  having  built  the  small  temple  behind  the 
Sphinx.  The  Sphinx  (called  in  Egyptian  Hu)  is  really 
an  immense  lion  with  a man’s  head  and  represented  the 
god  Harmachis,  or  the  sun  on  the  horizon  [O],  Between  < 
its  paws  is  a narrow  way  leading  to  a temple  which  has 
been  made  in  front  of  the  figure ; and  as  the  name  of 
Chephren  is  found  in  inscriptions  on  the  spot,  it  has 
been  supposed  by  some  that  this  king  caused  the  Sphinx 
to  be  hewn  out  of  the  living  rock  ; but  it  is  not  certain. 
The  total  height  of  the  monument  is  about  65  feet,  and 
its  length  about  190  feet.  The  face  of  this  magnificent 
monster  was  originally  coloured  red,  and  covered  with 
polished  stone,  but  almost  every  trace  of  this  covering 

' See  ‘ Zeitschrift  fiir  Aegyptische  Sprache,’  1871,  p.  62. 


62 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


has  now  disappeared.  The  beard  is  in  the  British  Museum. 
The  features  are  said  to  have  been  solemn,  majestic, 
and  benignant.  Its  nose  has  been  quite  destroyed,  and 
many  visitors  to  the  Sphinx  now-a-days  think  that  this 
magnificent  figure,  which  has  seen  hundreds  of  genera- 
tions rise  and  decay,  which  has  gazed  across  the  fiery 
sands  of  the  desert  for  thousands  of  years,  and  to  whom 
the  duration  of  an  empire  is  but  a few  years,  exists  solely 
for  them  to  chip  and  carve  their  names  upon. 

U U'  LlJ  Menkau-Rd,  or  Mycerinus,  like  his 

two  predecessors,  built  for  himself  a pyramid,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  reigned  sixty-three  years.  Tradition 
makes  him  to  have  been  a pious  and  good  king,  and  one 
who  was  a devout  worshipper  of  the  god  Osiris.  An 
attempt  was  made  in  the  year  1196  A.D.  to  entirely 
destroy  the  pyramid  which  he  built ; but  in  reality, 
his  pyramid,  which  is  the  third  at  Gizeh,  is  the  least 
damaged.  Colonel  Vyse  says  that  when  he  had 
reached  the  sarcophagus  chamber  inside  the  pyramid, 
he  found  there  the  stone  sarcophagus  of  the  king,  and 
the  wooden  cover  of  the  inside  coffin,  which  was  made 
of  cedar.  The  body  of  the  king  had  been  carried 
to  the  upper  chamber  in  the  pyramid,  and  had 
literally  been  torn  to  pieces,  most  probably  when  the 
pyramid  was  broken  open  A.D.  1196  in  search  of  treasure. 
The  sarcophagus  and  cover  of  the  coffin  were  shipped  on 
board  an  English  vessel ; but,  alas  ! the  ship  was  wrecked 
and  the  sarcophagus  found  a resting-place  at  the  bottom 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC.  63 


of  the  sea  near  Gibraltar.  Fortunately  the  wooden  cover 
was  cast  up  by  the  sea,  and  the  British  Museum  (third 
Egyptian  Room)  possesses  this,  together  with  a small 
fragment  of  the  stone  sarcophagus,  and  some  fragments 
of  the  mummy.  On  the  cover  are  two  lines  of  inscrip- 
tion, which  are  translated  by  Dr.  Birch  d ‘ Osiris,  king  of 
Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  Menkaura,  the  ever  living,  born 
of  Nut  (the  goddess  of  the  celestial  waters),  substance  of 
Seb  ; thy  mother  Nut  is  spread  over  thee  ; she  renders 
thee  divine  by  annihilating  thy  enemies.  O king 
Menkaura,  living  for  ever.’  These  fragments  of  mummy, 
coffin,  and  sarcophagus  are  of  the  greatest  interest ; for 
not  only  do  they  show  that  mummifying  was  at  that 
time  a well-understood  art,  but  they  speak  to  us  across 
a gulf  of  five  thousand  five  hundred  years,  and  tell  us 
something  of  their  religious  views  and  ideas.  Moreover, 
there  is  very  little  difference  between  the  shape  of 
the  hieroglyphs  of  those  days  and  those  of  a much  later 
date ; and  however  far  we  go  back,  we  never  come  to 
an  inscription  belonging  to  a period  in  which  we  can  see 
that  the  Egyptians  were  learning  to  write. 

Mycerinus  was  followed  by  a king  called  Sheps-es-kaf, 
and  with  him  the  great  and  important  fourth  dynasty 
closes. 

We  pass  over  the  kings  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties, 
merely  remarking  that  their  united  reigns  occupied  a 
period  of  about  four  hundred  years,  and  that  what  is 

' For  other  versions,  see  Brugsch,  ‘ Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,’  p.  83  ; and 
Wiedemann,  ‘ Geschichte,’  p.  192. 


64 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


generally  known  as  the  ‘ Old  Empire  ’ came  to  an  end 
with  this  dynasty  about  three  thousand  years  before 
Christ. 

Very  little  beyond  the  names  of  the  kings  who  belonged 
to  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh 
dynasties  is  known  ; and  a gap  of  about  five  hundred 
years  occurs  in  the  history  which  it  is  absolutely  impos- 
sible to  fill  up  in  detail. 

The  first  king  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  was  called 
Amenemha  ; he  did  battle  with  a Lybian  tribe  called 
the  Mat'iu,  and  defeated  the  Uaua  of  Nubia  in  the  twenty- 
ninth  year  of  his  reign.  During  his  reign  Egypt  enjoyed 
great  tranquillity,  and  the  people  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest  received  the  proper  care  due  to  them.  In  his 
later  years  a conspiracy  was  formed  against  him  ; but  he 
was  fortunate  enough  to  escape  the  death  by  which  he 
was  threatened  at  the  hand  of  his  foes,  who  attacked 
him  in  his  bed-room  at  night.  His  son  Usertsen  I.  was 
associated  with  him  in  the  kingdom  during  the  last 
years  of  his  reign  ; and  he  wrote  a book  for  this  son  full 
of  instructive  sayings,  a late  copy  of  which  is  now  in  the 
British  Museum. 

Usertsen  I.  was  occupied  for  some  years  in  fighting  a 
confederacy  of  Ethiopian  tribes  ; and  during  the  first 
years  of  his  reign  he  built  some  magnificent  edifices  in 
Heliopolis,  and  completed  several  of  the  works  under- 
taken by  his  father ; he  also  had  gold  brought  from 
Nubia,  and  turquoise  from  the  peninsula  of  Sinai.  A 
beautiful  inscription  at  Beni-Hassan  records  that  a 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC  65 


prince  named  Amen,  at  the  head  of  four  hundred  men, 
accompanied  the  king  in  one  of  his  Ethiopian  wars  ; he 
describes  himself  as  being  an  upright,  honest,  and 
indefatigable  servant  of  the  king,  doing  his  behests  in 
and  out  of  season  ; rendering  up  to  him  whatever  was 
due  to  him  without  keeping  back  the  least  particle  for 
himself,  giving  strict  justice  to  all,  showing  kindness  to 
the  fatherless  and  widow,  the  poor  and  the  distressed, 
taking  nought  of  the  poor  man’s  crop,  nor  accepting  the 
person  of  a great  man  before  his  humbler  fellow  ; and 
he  boasts  that  having  ploughed  the  whole  of  his  land 
from  the  north  to  the  south,  there  was  not  a hungry 
person  in  the  whole  land.  Following  the  example  of 
his  father,  Usertsen  I.  associated  his  son  Amenemha  II. 
in  the  rule  of  the  kingdom  during  the  last  few  years  of 
his  life,  and  the  like  was  done  by  Amenemha  in  respect 
of  his  son  Usertsen  11.  During  the  reign  of  this  monarch 
there  lived  a prince  called  Khnum-hetep,  the  son  of 
Nehara  and  his  wife  Bakat.  His  official  position  was 
that  of  chief  of  the  district  of  Menat-Khufu,  but  our 
attention  is  drawn  to  him  by  his  tomb,  which  still  exists. 

Everything  connected  with  the  life  of  an  Egyptian, 
the  appliances  of  art,  the  tools  of  trade,  sacrificial  scenes, 
and  scenes  of  life  itself,  are  represented  by  picture  and 
hieroglyph  on  Egyptian  tombs  with  wonderful  accuracy 
and  beauty.  One  scene  more  than  all  others  demands 
our  attention,  for  in  it  some  have  seen  a representation 
of  Jacob’s  arrival  in  Egypt.  It  would  appear  that  a 
family  of  thirty-seven  people  belonging  to  the  Amu 


66 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


race  emigrated  to  Egypt  in  the  reign  of  Usertsen  IL, 
and  brought  with  them  an  eye-paint  called  mestevi, 
which  was  considered  of  great  value.  The  features  of 
these  people  are  Jewish,  their  garments  are  of  different 
shape,  pattern  and  colours  from  those  of  the  Egyptians  ; 
the  leader  is  better  dressed  than  his  fellows,  and  is 
called  Abesha.  The  rest  of  the  company  is  composed 
of  men  (armed  with  bows  and  arrows,  and  spears), 
women,  and  children  ; one  man  plays  a seven-stringed 
lyre ; and  then  follow  the  baggage  animals.  At  all 
events  such  a picture  will  give  an  idea  of  what  the 
arrival  of  a party  of  foreigners  in  Egypt  would  look 
like  ; and  when  we  read  in  the  hieroglyphs  that  the 
chief  of  the  party  brought  the  valuable  eye  unguent  to 
the  chief  of  the  land,  we  are  reminded  of  Jacob’s  speech 
to  his  sons,  ‘ Carry  down  the  man  a present,  a little  balm, 
and  a little  honey,  spices,  and  myrrh,  nuts,  and  almonds.’^ 

The  next  king,  Usertsen  HE,  continued  the  wars  against 
the  Ethiopians,  and  built  the  fortress  of  Samneh.  The 
struggle  between  the  Ethiopians  and,  the  Egyptians 
appears  to  have  been  very  severe  ; and  at  Samneh  there 
was  a tablet  erected  which  forbade  any  negroes  to  pass 
by  this  place,  unless  they  were  in  boats  laden  with  goats, 
oxen,  or  other  animals.  Eventually  the  Egyptians  were 
victorious.  About  fifteen  hundred  years  after,  Thoth- 
mes  IL  deified  king  Usertsen  III.,  and  caused  festivals 
to  be  celebrated  in  his  honour. 

Amenemha  III.,  the  successor  of  Usertsen  III.,  is 

' Gen.  xliii.  ii.  (See  Frontispiece  also.) 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC.  67 


renowned  not  for  wars  or  conquests,  but  for  a thoroughly 
useful  piece  of  work,  whose  benefit  to  the  people  of  that 
day  it  would  be  hard  to  estimate,  and  still  harder  to  over- 
rate. It  is  well  known  that  the  prosperity  of  Egypt  de- 
pends upon  a regular  inundation,  neither  too  great  nor 
too  little,  of  the  Nile.  If  it  is  too  little,  then  there  ensues 
a famine,  and  if  it  is  too  great,  there  is  also  a famine. 
Amenemha  III.  sought  to  lessen  the  danger  of  the 
starvation  of  his  people  by  building  the  enormous  lake 
Moeris  (in  Egyptian  Mi-ur,  ‘the  great  water’),  in  the 
district  called  the  Eayoum,  in  the  west  of  Egypt,  in 
which  the  surplus  water  of  the  inundation  might  be 
stored  up  for  use  in  time  of  need.  It  was  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  dams,  and  was  connected  by  a canal  with  the 
Nile.  The  lake  was  stocked  with  fish.  In  the  Museum 
at  Boulak  there  is  preserved  part  of  a papyrus  which 
gives  a plan  of  the  lake  and  canal.  The  constructor 
of  this  work  also  built  a pyramid  246  feet  high,  and  the 
wonderful  palace  called  the  Labyrinth,  which  some  say 
had  three  hundred  rooms  above  ground,  and  the  same 
number  below  ; Herodotus,  however,  gives  the  immense 
number  of  four  thousand  five  hundred. 

The  last  king  of  the  twelfth  dynasty  was  Amenemha 
IV. ; and  from  this  period  (about  2200  B.C.)  to  the 
eighteenth  dynasty  there  is  a gap  of  about  five  hundred 
years.  It  is  during  this  break  that  the  rule  of  the 
Hyksos  or  ‘Shepherd  Kings’  comes  in.  Having 
migrated  into  Egypt  from  the  East,  they  established 
themselves  at  Memphis,  and  made  themselves  masters 


E 2 


68 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


of  the  whole  country ; but  they  were  expelled  from 
Egypt  finally  by  Ahmes,  the  first  king  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty,  about  1700  B.C.  Before  their  downfall  wars 
had  been  going  on  for  several  years  between  these  rulers 
from  the  East  and  such  of  the  native  chiefs  as  were  able 
to  muster  armed  men  and  to  make  an  attempt  to  liberate 
their  country. 

The  British  Museum  possesses  a very  valuable  papyrus 
relating  to  this  period,  the  importance  of  which  was 
first  recognized  by  De  Rouge.  It  appears  that  the 
last  ‘Shepherd  King,’  Apepi  II.,  was  a worshipper  of 
the  god  Sutech,  and  wishing  to  build  a magnificent 
temple  to  this  god,  he  sent  and  demanded  assistance  in 
the  shape  of  men  and  materials  for  his  work  from  the 
Egyptian  prince  called  Sekenen  Ra.  The  prince  called 
a council,  and  determined  to  refuse  to  comply  with  this 
demand  ; but  although  Sekenen  Ra  began  the  rebellion 
against  the  usurpers  of  the  throne  of  Egypt,  he  appears 
never  to  have  attained  the  throne  himself,  for  the  next 
monarch  of  all  Egypt  was  called  Ahmes,  i.e.,  ‘ the  child 
of  the  Moon,’  who  was  descended  from  the  kings  of 
the  seventeenth  dynasty ; the  official  position  which  he 
held  under  Sekenen  Ra  was  ‘chief  of  the  sailors’  in  a 
vessel  called  the  ‘ Calf’  He  distinguished  himself  by 
his  valour  in  a number  of  victorious  battles  at  Avaris 
and  the  fortress  of  Sharuhen,  by  which  the  power  of  the 
‘ Shepherd  Kings  ’ was  utterly  broken  ; and  at  length, 
having  reconquered  the  land  of  Egypt,  this  mighty 
soldier  took  up  the  reins  of  government  and  became 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC.  69 


king.  Under  his  firm  but  mild  rule  the  temples,  which 
had  been  sadly  neglected,  were  repaired,  a temple 
dedicated  to  Ptah  at  Memphis,  and  another  to  Amen- 
Ra  at  Thebes. 

Ahmes  reigned  twenty-two  years,  and  married  Ahmes- 
Nefertari,  a negress,  who  appears  to  have  ruled  for  some 
time  after  her  husband’s  death.  Their  son  Amenhotep 
ruled  eleven  years.  Following  this  monarch  came 
Thothmes  I.,  who  made  expeditions  into  Mesopotamia, 
attacked  the  Syrians,  and  among  other  buildings  erected 
two  granite  obelisks  before  the  temple  of  Amen-Ra  at 
Thebes.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  daughter,  queen 
Hatasu,  who  in  compliance  with  public  opinion 
associated  her  brother  Thothmes  II.  with  her  in  the 
kingdom.  Thothmes  II.  ruled  apparently  for  a short  time 
only,  and  it  is  hard  to  say  whether  he  was  murdered, 
or  whether  he  died  in  peace.  After  his  death  the  queen 
became  sole  ruler,  put  on  the  dress  of  a man,  and  gave 
orders  to  have  the  name  of  her  brother  Thothmes  II. 
erased  from  the  monuments.  During  her  reign  an 
expedition  was  undertaken  to  the  land  of  Punt,  or  the 
spice  country ; and  spices,  gold,  ivory,  precious  stones, 
and  all  other  products  of  this  wonderful — and  to  the 
Egyptians  new — land  were  brought  home.  Some  trees 
were  brought  home  so  large  that  it  took  six  men  to 
carry  each  of  them.  This  queen  also  ordered  two 
magnificent  monolith  granite  obelisks  with  shining 
metal  tops  to  be  made,  which  should  stand  before 
the  gate  of  Thothmes  I.,  and  record  her  works  for  ever. 


70 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


Later  on  in  her  reign  she  associated  another  brother, 
Thothmes  III.,  with  herself  in  the  kingdom,  but  the 
same  fate  befell  her  as  befell  her  brother  Thothmes  II.  ; 
for  wherever  on  the  monuments  she  appears  co-regent 
with  Thothmes  III.,  her  name  has  been  carefully 
chiselled  out  and  destroyed. 


Bust  of  Thothmes  HI. 


After  the  death  of  Hatasu,  Thothmes  III. 

became  sole  ruler  of  Egypt.  By  his  success  in  mighty 
wars,  and  by  the  enormous  quantity  of  tribute  with 
which  he  enriched  the  Egyptian  nation,  as  well  as  by  his 
numerous  and  beautiful  buildings  in  Thebes,  Memphis, 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC.  7 1 

and  Heliopolis,  he  deserves  in  all  respects  the  name  of 
‘great’  among  the  Egyptian  kings.  He  marched  into 
Mesopotamia  as  far  as  Nineveh,  and  wherever  he  went 
the  nations  hastened  to  submit  to  him,  and  to  pay 
tribute;  the  few  that  would  not  do  this,  but  preferred 
to  do  battle  with  him,  were  ignominiously  defeated. 
Ethiopia,  Syria,  and  Phoenicia  were  among  the  principal 
countries  that  paid  immense  tribute  ; and  the  record  of 
the  wars  of  this  monarch,  and  the  enumeration  of  the 
different  amounts  of  tribute  received,  are  sufficient  to  form 
a large  decoration  for  the  sandstone  wall  which  surrounds 
the  temple  at  Thebes,  which  he  built.  Among  the  lists 
of  the  peoples  conquered  by  Thothmes  HI.  occurs  the 
name  Apeni,  which  some  have  considered  to  represent 
the  Hebrews.  The  reader  will  be  familiar  with  the  name 
of  Thothmes  HI.,  for  it  was  this  king  who  had  made, 
and  inscribed  with  his  own  name,  the  obelisk  which  is 
commonly  known  as  ‘ Cleopatra’s  Needle,’  which  now 
stands  on  the  Thames  Embankment.^  Thothmes  reigned 
fifty-four  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  Amenhotep  1 1., 
who  after  a short  reign  made  way  for  Thothmes  IV.,  the 
king  mentioned  on  the  tablet  between  the  forepaws  of 
the  Sphinx.  A useful  piece  of  work  done  by  him  was  to 
remove  the  sand  which  almost  buried  this  mighty  figure 
and  prevented  people  from  fully  appreciating  its  size. 

Following  Thothmes  IV.  comes  Amenhotep  HI.,  in 
whose  reign  architecture  and  sculpture  arrived  at  a 
high  pitch  of  perfection.  He  was  a great  warrior,  and 
' See  ‘ Cleopatra’s  Needle,’  By-paths  of  Bible  Knowledge,  No.  i. 


72 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


the  sculptures  represent  him  receiving  tribute  of  all 
sorts  from  the  people  of  Mesopotamia  and  Ethiopia. 
In  the  former  land  he  says  that  he  killed  two  hundred 
and  ten  lions  with  his  own  hand.  He  is  renowned 
also  for  the  famous  statues  of  Memnon,  about  68  feet 
high,  which  he  erected  before  the  palace  of  Luxor ; 
one  of  these  was  broken  by  an  earthquake  a few  years 
before  our  era,  and  was  afterwards  repaired  by  the 
Emperor  Severus  about  190  A.D.  Before  this  accident 
it  was  alleged  that  the  figure  sang  when  the  rays  of  the 
sun  fell  upon  it  at  dawn.  Amenhotep  III.  was  a devout 
worshipper  of  the  god  Amen,  and  during  his  reign  he 
built  a large  number  of  temples  to  this  god  and  to 
others.  Amenhotep  III.  made  his  son,  Amenhotep 
IV.,  king  during  his  own  reign.  He  is  famous  as 
having  been  the  introducer  of  the  worship  of  the  sun’s 
disk.  According  to  the  Egyptian  priests,  he  was  an 
unbeliever  of  the  rankest  type,  for  the  most  popular 
worship  at  that  time  was  that  of  the  god  Amen.  He 
seemed  to  have  taken  such  a dislike  to  this  god,  that  he 
changed  his  name  from  Amen-hotep  to  Klm-en-aten, 
i.e.,  ‘the  glory  of  the  disk  and  not  content  with  this,  he 
gave  orders  to  have  the  name  Amen  erased  from  all  the 
sculptures,  and  he  determined  to  remove  from  the 
capital  city  and  found  a new  one  for  himself,  where  he 
could  erect  temples  to  his  favourite  deity.  In  this  place, 
which  is  known  to-day  by  the  name  of  Tel-el-Amarna, 
he  built  a magnificent  temple  in  honour  of  the  sun’s 
disk,  not  far  from  the  Nile  on  the  eastern  side.  The 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC.  73 


next  important  kings  of  this  dynasty  were  called  Ai  and 
Har-em-hebi : but  we  pass  on  at  once  to  the  important 
nineteenth  dynasty. 

h'rom  the  monuments  we  learn  very  little  about 
Rameses,  the  first  of  that  name,  and  the  founder  of  the 
nineteenth  dynasty  (about  1400  B.C.).  From  later  sources 
he  is  known  to  have  joined  battle  with  Saprer  the  king 
of  the  Khita  or  Hittites,  but  of  this  we  shall  speak 
further  on  ; his  battles  with  the  Khita  and  other  nations 
were  continued  by  his  son  Seti  I.  Seti  took  up  arms 
against  the  Asiatics,  and  made  war  with  the  Shasu  or 
Arabs,  the  Libyans  and  the  Ethiopians  : in  the  sculptures 
we  see  him  not  only  directing  the  battle,  but  at 
times  fighting  hand  to  hand  in  mortal  combat.  The  names 
of  the  towns  and  fortresses  were  abolished  by  him,  and 
new  Egyptian  names  given  in  their  stead  ; new  fortresses 
were  built  where  necessary,  and  great  pains  were  taken 
to  systematically  reduce  the  countries  around  to  the  rule 
of  the  king.  Among  the  names  of  the  places  to  which 
he  went  are  many  which  are  met  with  in  the  Bible, 
such  as  Canaan,  Migdol,  and  Kadesh.  He  built  the 
Memnonium,  a small  temple  to  Sekhet  at  Beni-Hassan, 
a well  in  the  desert,  and  set  up  in  Heliopolis  an  obelisk, 
which  is  now  in  Rome,  as  well  as  many  other  great 
works.  He  reigned  fifty-one  years,  and  the  visitor  to 
Sir  John  Soane’s  Museum  in  Lincoln’s  Inn  Eields  may 
there  see  his  beautiful  marble  sarcophagus. 

If  Seti  1.  made  Egypt  great  at  home  and  abroad,  it 
was  only  a fitting  preparation  of  the  country  for  the  long 


74 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


and  brilliant  reign  of  his  successor 

Rameses  II.  Under  his  rule  the  wars  were  carried  out  on 
a larger  scale  than  had  ever  before  been  contemplated  ; 
countries  where  the  Egyptians  had  never  been  seen, 
learned  to  know  them  by  the  soldiers  of  Rameses  ; and 
at  home  the  arts  and  sciences  advanced  with  such  mag- 
nificent strides,  that  the  civilised  nations  of  to-day  have 
not  yet  ceased  to  wonder  at  the  ingenuity  and  skill  which 
performed  such  wonderful  deeds  and  works.  Josiah 
the  king  of  Judah  began  to  reign  at  the  age  of  eight 
years,^  and  it  is  probable  that  Rameses  the  Great  was 
at  an  equally  early  age  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
rule  of  the  kingdom  : only  four  or  five  years  after  this 
association  he  was  already  a man  of  war,  having  led  an 
expedition  against  the  enemies  of  Egypt  and  beaten 
them  ; but,  as  we  shall  see  soon,  the  youthful  king  had 
the  utmost  need  of  all  his  power  and  bravery  to  keep 
in  check  the  immense  number  of  nations  which  had 
been  rendered  tributary  to  Egypt. 

The  first  war  in  which  the  young  prince  took  part 
was  that  against  the  Ethiopians  ; and  in  the  fifth  year 
of  his  reign  the  brave  rebellion  of  the  Khita  or  Hittites 
took  place,  which  ended  in  the  Khita  being  reckoned  a 
nation  of  almost  equal  importance  with  the  Egyptians. 
This  war  and  its  incidents  have  formed  the  subject  of 
the  prize  poem  of  a scribe  called  Pentaur,  and  although 
Rameses  II.  did  not  come  out  of  this  fight  with  such 

* 2 Kings  xxii.  i. 


Raineses  II.  in  Battle. 


THE  LAMB  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC. 


77 


glory  as  he  wished,  yet  the  words  of  this  song  describing 
the  bravery  and  deeds  of  the  king  in  the  highest 
terms  of  praise,  were  inscribed  upon  the  walls  of  the 
temples  at  Abydos,  and  copies  of  it  were  made  upon 
papyrus,  to  be  handed  down  to  future  generations. 
Rameses  II.  was  obliged  to  make  a treaty  with  the 
Khita,^  a copy  of  which,  mutilated  in  some  parts,  is  still 
extant. 

Mr.  Lushington’s  translation  of  the  poems  of  Pentaur 
on  the  war  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Egyptian 
literature,  p.  lOO. 

Not  only  in  writing  was  this  battle  of  Rameses  II. 
celebrated,  but  the  best  artists  of  the  day  were  employed 
to  depict  its  various  incidents  at  Abu-Simbel,  Beit 
Oually,  and  elsewhere.  At  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes  a 
very  fierce  battle  took  place,  and  both  sides  fought  with 
the  greatest  courage.  The  chariots  of  the  Khita  and 
their  allies  are  depicted  as  having  been  overturned  into 
the  river.  This  battle  cost  them  a number  of  very 
important  lives : for  the  brother  of  the  king  of  the 
Khita,  the  charioteer  of  the  king,  the  chief  general  of 
the  army,  and  the  leader  of  the  cavalry  were  all  killed. 
One  of  the  pictures  shows  the  king  of  Khilibu  or 
Khiribu,  an  ally  of  the  Khita  king,  being  rescued  by 
his  own  men  from  drowning  in  the  river.  From  the 

' A translation  of  this  document  was  first  made  by  Rosellini  in  1839  ; 
another  by  Be  Rouge  in  1866  ; and  a third  by  Goodwin  in  1862.  English 
versions  are  given  in  Brugsch’s  ‘Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,’  vol.  ii.,  p.  68  ; 
and  in  Prof.  Sayce’s  ‘Fresh  Light  from  the  Ancient  Monuments,’  pp.191-197. 


78 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


description  of  the  battle  vve  learn  that  Rameses  advanced 
too  far  into  the  thick  of  the  fight,  and  so  found  himself 
surrounded  on  all  sides.  In  this  difficulty  and  dire 
necessity  the  king  prayed  to  Amen,  who  appearing  to 
him,  encouraged  him  with  words,  and  taking  him  by  the 
hand,  led  him  to  victory  over  the  foe.  So  ended  this 
great  war ; but  whether  Egypt  gained  much  more  than 
glory  by  it,  is  difficult  to  say.  The  treaty  between 
Egypt  and  the  Khita  was,  however,  in  later  days  firmly 
cemented  by  Rameses  marrying,  in  his  thirty-fourth 
year,  the  daughter  of  the  king  of  the  Khita,  who  took 
the  Egyptian  name  of  Ur-ma-neferu-Ra. 

After  the  battle  with  the  Khita  Rameses  in  a series 
of  wars  reduced  the  Canaanites,  the  Amorites,  the 
people  of  Syria,  and  others.  He  was  a mighty  builder, 
and  erected  temples  to  the  principal  gods  of  Egypt  at 
Memphis,  Thebes,  and  Abydos : he  completed  the 
great  wall  from  Heliopolis  to  Pelusium,  which  his  father 
Seti  I.  had  begun  to  build,  in  order  to  keep  out  the 
never  quiet  Asiatics,  who  for  ever  desired  to  make 
inroads  on  the  land  of  Egypt.  It  was  on  this  wall  that 
the  ‘ treasure  cities  ’ of  Pithom  and  Raamses,^  which  the 
children  of  Israel  built,  are  supposed  by  some  to  have 
been  placed ; but  other  scholars  have  placed  Pithom 
elsewhere,  and  identified  the  Hebrew  Succoth  with  a 
district  of  Egypt  called  TJuikii.  In  the  latter  part  of  his 
reign  Rameses  II.  erased  his  father’s  name  from  the 
monuments,  inserting  his  own  in  its  place : the  reader 


* Ex.  i.  II. 


THE  LAND  OF  EGYPT,  ITS  PEOPLE,  ETC. 


79 


will  remember  that  this  king  caused  his  name  to  be 
inscribed  on  two  of  the  faces  of  ‘Cleopatra’s  Needle,’ 
while  the  other  two  bear  the  name  of  the  king  Thothmes 
III.  who  erected  it.  Rameses  II.  reigned  sixty-seven 
years  ; as  co-regent  with  his  father  Seti  I.  for  more  than 
one-half  of  the  time,  and  the  remainder  of  the  period  as 
sole  monarch.  The  monuments  inform  us  that  he  had 
several  wives,  and  one  hundred  and  sixty-two  children, 
of  whom  one  hundred  and  eleven  were  sons.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  thirteenth  son,  called  Mer-en-Ptah, 
or  Meneptah,  who  is  remarkable  for  neither  wars  nor 
buildings,  but  who  calls  for  our  attention  as  being  in  all 
probability  the  ‘ Pharaoh  ’ of  the  Exodus. 


8o 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Illustrations  of  the  Pentateuch  and  Bible 

PASSAGES  FROM  THE  EGYPTIAN  MONUMENTS. 

The  first  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs  who  had  intimate 
dealings  with  the  Egyptians  was  the  Chaldean  Abraham. 
From  his  eastern  home  he  wandered  towards  the  West, 
and  under  the  guidance  of  El-Shaddai  the  already  aged 
man  directed  his  journey  to  Canaan.  During  his  journey 
through  this  land  his  God  appeared  to  him,^  and  declared 
the  promise  that  his  seed  should  be  its  possessors.  Now 
Abraham  journeyed  on  towards  the  south.^  Centuries 
must  have  elapsed  since  Egypt  had  become  a settled 
monarchy  with  absolute  monarchs,  and  a regular  system 
of  rule  prevailed  over  the  land.  The  care  with  which  the 
Nile  inundation  was  watched,  how  its  waters  were  used 
for  the  irrigation  of  the  country,  the  fertility  of  the  land, 
its  immense  resources  and  its  riches  ; the  report  of  all 
these  things  would  become  the  common  property  of  the 
nations  around,  and  hence  the  stranger  Abraham  journey- 
ing through  Canaan  would  hear  that  even  though  there 
was  a scarcity  of  food  in  Canaan,  there  was  a certainty  of 
food  in  Egypt.  So  towards  Egypt  he  bent  his  steps, 
’ Gen.  xii.  7.  ^ Gen.  xii.  9. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  8 1 


meaning  to  remain  there  for  a time.*  But  the  patriarch 
dreaded  lest  his  wife  should  be  taken  from  him,  and  lest 
himself  should  be  slain.^  The  possibility  of  such  a thing 
being  done  has  made  some  argue  that  the  manners  of 
the  Egyptians  must  have  been  savage  and  barbaric. 
In  the  inscriptions,  however,  we  meet  two  facts  which 
bear  upon  this  point ; the  first  is  recorded  in  the  ‘Tale 
of  Two  Brothers,’  where  we  are  told  that  a king  of 
Egypt  sent  two  armies  to  bring  a beautiful  woman  to 
him,  and  to  murder  her  husband  ; and  the  second  is  a 
statement  in  a papyrus  pointed  out  by  M.  Chabas,  which 
states  that  the  wife  and  children  of  a foreigner  are  by 
right  the  lawful  property  of  the  king.  The  kindness  of 
the  Pharaoh  of  Abraham  is  too  well  known  to  need  any 
mention,  and  after  receiving  rich  presents  the  patriarch 
went  up  out  of  Egypt. 

It  has  been  very  generally  supposed  that  Abraham’s 
visit  to  Egypt  took  place  under  the  reign  of  one  of  the 
kings  of  the  twelfth  dynasty,  but  which  king  has  not  yet 
been  satisfactorily  made  out.  Egypt,  like  every  country 
where  the  supply  of  water  is  irregular,  was  exceedingly 
liable  to  terrible  famines,  and  history  tells  us  that  it 
was  Amenemha  III.  who  was  the  first  king  that 
appreciated  the  full  danger  of  this  calamity,  for  he  gave 
all  his  attention  to  building  the  huge  reservoir  called 
Lake  Moeris  in  the  Eayoum.  Connected  with  this  lake 
was  a series  of  locks,  dykes,  and  channels,  by  which 
the  whole  land  might  receive  a regulated  supply 
' Gen.  xii.  lo.  ^ Gen.  xii.  \z. 

F 


82 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


of  water.  Even  modern  engineers  have  admired  the 
remains  of  this  construction,  and  it  has  been  said  that 
the  Egypt  of  to-day  would  be  a great  gainer  if  the  work 
could  be  restored,  and  a new  lake  made.  Hence  some 
Biblical  critics  have  considered  that  Amenemha  III. 
was  king  of  Egypt  when  Abraham  came  there,  and 
others  that  Usertsen  I.  was  king,  and  that  Amenemha 
was  the  Pharaoh  of 'the  time  of  Joseph  ; but  in  any  case 
the  fact  that  Abraham  came  there  about  that  time  is 
generally  accepted. 

The  next  and  most  important  of  all  the  relations 
which  ever  existed  between  the  Jews  and  Egyptians, 
was  that  begun  by  the  arrival  of  Jacob’s  darling  child 
in  Egypt.  Sold  by  his  brethren  to  a company  of  Ish- 
maelites  for  twenty  pieces  of  silver,^  he  was  in  turn  sold 
by  them  in  Egypt  to  Potiphar,  an  officer  of  Pharaoh’s, 
and  the  captain  of  the  guard  or  executioners.  Here  the 
youthful  and  handsome  Hebrew  showed  his  devotion  to 
his  master,  and  eventually  became  so  trusted  that  he 
was  set  over  all  his  house.  The  ne.xt  part  of  his  history 
is  illustrated  by  an  extract  from  the  D’Orbiney  Papyrus 
in  the  British  Museum,  containing  the  Story  of  the  Two 
Brothers.^  The  papyrus  was  written  by  the  scribe 
Enna,  and  was  originally  in  the  possession  of  Seti  1 1., 
a king  of  the  nineteenth  dynasty,  so  that  it  is  as  old  as 
the  stay  of  the  Jews  in  Egypt.  A paraphrase  of  the 
whole  story  is  given  in  the  chapter  on  Egyptian  litera- 
ture, p.  1 1 5. 

' Gen.  xxxvii.  28.  ^ See  ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  ii.  p 137. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  83 


When  Potiphar  had  heard  his  wife’s  story,  Joseph  was 
cast  into  prison,  where  again  he  held  a superior  position, 
and  where  he  interpreted  the  dreams  of  the  butler  and 
baker,  the  former  of  whom  was  pardoned  on  the  king’s 
birthday.  Later  he  is  called  upon  to  interpret  the 
dreams  of  Pharaoh.  In  all  these  narratives  we  find 
passages  in  which  the  testimony  of  the  Bible  and  of  the 
monumente  ,go  hand  in  hand.  Cups  such  as  the  king 
would  have  taken  his  wine  from  are  portrayed  ; baskets 
such  as  the  baker  would  have  carried  his  ‘ bakemeats  ’ 
in  are  used  .even  unto  this  day,  and  may  be  seen  in  the 
British  Museum.  We  know  from  the  Rosetta  Stone 
(line  forty-six  of  the  Greek  text)  that  as  late  as  that 
period  (195  B.C.)  it  was  customary  to  make  great 
rejoicings  on  the  king’s  birthday,^  to  consider  it  holy, 
and  to  do  no  work  on  it,  and  that  the  Pharaoh  would 
pardon  his  butler  as  an  act  of  grace  is  more  than 
probable. 

In  the  seven  cows  which  Pharaoh  saw  feeding  in  the 
meadow.  Dr.  Birch  has  seen  a reference  to  the  seven  cows 
of  Athor,  pictured  in  the  vignette  of  the  one  hundred 
and  forty-eighth  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  ; and 
the  Hebrew  Bible  has  preserved  the  Egyptian  word  for 
‘ reed  grass  ’ in  the  word  which  has  been  translated 
‘ meadow.’ 

During  the  period  of  Pharaoh’s  anxiety  to  have  his 
dreams  interpreted,  the  butler  remembered  his  former 
prison  companion,  Joseph,  and  made  mention  of  him  to 
* Wilkinson,  ‘ Ancient  Egyptians,’  iii.  p.  330. 


F 2 


84 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


his  lord.  Before  Joseph  entered  the  presence  he  shaved, 
and  changed  his  raiment.'  Here  again  the  monuments 
and  profane  history  offer  us  illustrations.  The  Egyptians 
only  allowed  their  hair  to  grow  during  the  times  of 
mourning,  and  to  neglect  the  hair  was  considered  very 
slovenly  and  dirty ; when  a man  of  low  station  had 
to  be  represented,  the  artist  always  drew  him  with  a 
beard.  The  artists  carried  this  so  far,  that  Rameses 


kb. 


VII.,  who  was  negligent  about  his  dress,  is  portrayed  on 
his  tomb  at  Thebes  with  the  addition  of  a stubbly 
beard  of  some  few  days’  growth.  The  heads  of  the 
Egyptians  were  shaved,  only  locks  being  left  here  and 
there,  and  the  priests  shaved  the  whole  body  every  three 
days,  while  the  Jews  and  other  foreign  nations  delighted 
in  long  beards.  The  British  Museum  possesses  Egyptian 
razors,  and  in  a tomb  at  Beni-Hassan  the  act  of  shaving 

’ Gen.  xli.  14. 


ILI.USTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  85 


is  actually  represented.  The  razors  are  of  various 
shapes,  and  were  carried  about  in  a bag  from  place  to 
place.  The  scribe  who  wrote  the  hymn  in  praise  of 
learning  has  contrasted  the  hard  work  of  the  barber  with 
that  of  the  scribe.  The  scribe  holds  places  of  honour; 
from  his  youth  he  is  a counsellor,  and  is  sent  on  royal 
commissions ; but 

The  barber  is  shaving  till  evening. 

When  he  places  himself  to  eat  he  places  himself  on  his 
elbows. 

He  places  himself  at  street  after  street 

to  seek  after  shaving. 

He  wearies  his  hands  to  fill  his  belly, 

as  bees  feed  by  their  labour.' 

When  Pharaoh  had  told  his  dream,  and  had  heard 
its  interpretation,  he  determined  to  accept  the  advice 
given  by  Joseph,  and  straightway  appointed  him  lord 
over  all  Egypt,  second  only  to  the  king,  at  the  same 
time  giving  him  rich  and  valuable  presents.  He  first 
gave  him  a ring,  the  supreme  emblem  of  the  king’s 
authority,  which  by  that  gift  was  transferred  to  Joseph  ; 
he  next  arrayed  him  in  fine  linen,  for  which  Egypt  was 
so  celebrated,  and  which  was  the  material  of  which  the 
dress  of  the  Egyptian  priests  was  made  ; and  putting  a 
chain  of  gold  about  his  neck,  he  made  him  ride  through 
the  land  as  ruler,  while  all  the  people  shouted  before 
him  words  of  praise.  The  gift  of  a chain  or  collar  of 

* Dr.  Birch,  ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  viii.  p.  148. 


86 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


gold  to  a high  officer  was  apparently  a custom  with  the 
kings  of  Egypt.  When  Ahmes,  the  chief  of  the  sailors, 
and  afterwards  king  of  Egypt,  cut  off  the  head  of  a dead 
enemy  at  Avaris  and  brought  it  to  the  king,  a collar  of 
gold  was  given  to  him  as  a reward  ; and  after  another 
battle,  in  which  he  had  shown  the  same  prowess,  he 
received  another  chain  or  collar  from  the  hands  of  the 
grateful  king.  The  word  or  words  which  the  Egyptians 
cried  out  before  Joseph  offer  much  difficulty  of 
explanation  ; some  have  said  that  they  should  be  trans- 
lated ‘ Bow  the  head,’  and  others  think  it  means  ‘ Rejoice  ; ’ 
but  so  far  its  real  meaning  is  a mystery,  though,  should 
the  word  be  Hebrew,  the  rendering  ‘Bow  the  knee’  is 
probably  good.  Besides  all,  this.  Pharaoh  gave  Joseph 
an  Egyptian  name,  and  he  married  Asenath,  the 
daughter  of  a priest  of  On.  The  name  of  his  former 
master,  Potiphar,  appears  to  be  a perfectly  good  Egyptian 
name,  and  Egyptologists  have  pointed  out  that  its 
probable  equivalent  in  hieroglyphics  is  : — 

□ D ® ^ i.e.,  ‘ devoted  to  the  Sun-god.’ 

Pa-ta-pa-Ra 


So  likewise  has  Joseph’s  new  name  Zaphnath-paaneah 
been  shown  by  Mr.  Le  Page  Renouf  and  others  to  be 


/VvWSA 


t'eft-ent-pa-an;^ 


i.e.,  ‘ Storehouse  of  the  house 
of  Life.’^ 


* Brugsch  makes  it,  ‘Governor  of  the  district  of  the  place  of  Life.’ 
‘ Egypt  under  the  Pharaohs,’  ii.  p.  265. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  8/ 


The  name  of  his  wife,  Asenath,  is  said  to  mean  ‘ devoted 
to  Neit,’  while  the  city  On  is  the  Annu,  ||  ^ or 

Heliopolis  of  the  Egyptians.  The  gift  of  a new  name 
to  Joseph  reminds  us  of  Daniel  being  called  Belte- 
shazzar  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  new  names  of 
Hananiah,  Azariah,  and  Mishael  ; while  a parallel  case 
of  a foreigner  being  raised  to  so  high  a position  in 
Egypt  is  given  by  the  papyrus  relating  to  the  story  of 
Saneha.  The  subsequent  history  of  Joseph,  his  divining 
cup,  his  giving  his  brethren  changes  of  garments,  the 
land  of  Goshen  being  set  apart  for  his  father  and 
brethren,  because  the  shepherd  was  an  abomination 
to  the  Egyptians,  and  the  embalming  of  his  father, 
exhibit  in  a striking  manner  the  rigid  accuracy  of  the 
Bible  in  its  many  references  to  Egyptian  habits  and 
customs. 

Joseph  would,  of  course,  be  held  in  the  highest  honour 
by  the  Pharaoh  and  his  successors  for  the  wonderful 
policy  by  which  he  ‘ bought  all  the  land  of  Egypt  for 
Pharaoh  and  he  proved  beyond  all  doubt  that  it  was 
possible  for  the  crops  of  the  years  of  plenty  to  be  stored 
up,  so  that  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  should  not  perish 
in  the  years  of  drought  or  scarcity.  So  when  we 
read  that  the  people  said  to  Joseph,  ‘Thou  hast  saved  ^ 
our  lives,’*  we  must  understand  that  it  was  not  said  with 
the  lips  only  and  without  meaning  ; but  that  it  was  the 
truth,  and  represented  the  heartfelt  and  grateful  thanks 

' Gen.  xlvii.  25. 


88 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


of  a native  to  the  man  who  was,  as  his  Egyptian  name 
signified,  ‘ the  storehouse  of  the  house  of  Life.’ 

After  the  days  had  multiplied,  and  the  good  and 
great  things  which  Joseph  had  done  for  Egypt  had  been 
forgotten  by  the  ruling  dynasty,  ‘ there  arose  up  a new 
king  over  Egypt,  which  knew  not  Joseph.’'  It  is 
generally  accepted  now  that  Joseph  was  sold  into  Egypt 
at  the  time  when  the  Hyksos  were  in  power ; and 
it  is  also  generally  accepted  that  the  Exodus  took 
place  after  the  death  of  Rameses  II.,  and  under  the 
reign  of  Merenptah  or  Meneptah.  Now  the  children  of 
Israel  were  in  captivity  in  Egypt  for  four  hundred,^  or 
four  hundred  and  thirty  years  and  as  they  went  out  of 
Egypt  after  the  death  of  Rameses  II.,  it  was  probably 
some  time  about  the  year  1350  B.c. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  Pharaoh  who  persecuted 
the  Israelites  so  shamefully  was  Rameses  II.;  though 
there  are  some  who  say  that  it  was  Ahmes  or  Amasis  I, 
The  Pharaoh  first  set  tlie  Israelites  hard  and  difficult 
burdens,  and  then  appointed  overseers  to  look  after  them 
and  see  that  they  did  their  work.  Both  tradition  and  the 
monuments  prove  and  supplement  this  statement  ; for 
Diodorus'*  tells  us  that  Rameses  II.  or  Sesostris  put  up 
an  inscription  in  each  of  his  buildings  saying  that  it  had 
been  erected  by  captives,  and  that  not  a single  native 
Egyptian  was  employed  on  the  work.  Again,  this  king 
set  up  a brick  factory,  or  field  as  we  should  say,  and  by 

‘ Ex  i.  8.  Gen.  xv.  13. 

^ Ex.  xii.  40.  ^ i.  56  ; Herod,  ii.  lo8. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  89 


employing  the  labour  of  captives  and  others  was  enabled 
to  sell  his  bricks  at  a lower  price  than  any  other  maker.’ 
Rameses  II.,  like  Nebuchadnezzar  and  the  other  kings  of 
Babylon,  had  a stamp  made,  and  his 
bricks  were  impres.sed  with  it.^  They 
were  made  with  or  without  straw,  and 
it  was  a common  custom  not  to  burn 
the  bricks,  but  to  dry  them  in  the 
sun  ; for  in  that  dry  country,  where 
rain  seldom  comes,  the  sun-dried 
brick  was  just  as  useful  for  the  pur- 
pose of  building  as  the  baked.  The 
Jews  appear  to  have  lived  upon  their 
own  land,  and  some  members  of  each 
family  no  doubt  tilled  it,  that  the 
others  might  have  food.  They  were  not  the  only  nations 
so  employed,  for  the  monuments  show  us  people  who 
are  certainly  not  Jews  making  bricks  and  performing 
other  servile  work.  They  worked  in  detachments, 
each  superintended  by  a taskmaster,  and  they  were 
compelled  to  make  so  many  bricks  per  day.*  When 
Pharaoh  wished  to  increase  their  labour,  he  ordered 
them  to  use  stubble  instead  of  straw,  and  so  the  already 
overtasked  labourers  were  obliged  to  go  into  the  fields 
where  the  reapers  had  been,  and  to  cut  off  the  stalks 


BRICK  STAMP  OF 
RAMESES  11. 


* Wilkinson,  ‘ Ancient  Egyptians,’  i.  p.  343. 

^ Sun-dried  bricks  of  Raineses  IL,  Thothmes  HI.,  &c.,  may  be  seen  in 
the  British  Museum  (first  Egyptian  Room)  ; as  also  a piece  of  burnt  brick 
ol  Thothmes  HI. 

* Ex.  V.  13. 


90 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


that  remained,  to  chop  them  small,  and  then  to  mix 
them  with  the  mud.  Whatever  the  Pharaoh  ordered 
had  to  be  done.  Dr.  Birch  mentions  the  endorsement  of 
a papyrus  referring  to  twelve  brick-makers  employed  to 
build  a house,  where  it  is  said,  ‘ Let  there  be  no  relaxation 
that  they  should  make  their  number  of  bricks  daily  in 
the  new  house  in  the  same  manner,  to  obey  the  messages 
sent  by  my  lord.’  So  then,  together  with  slaves  of 
other  nations,  the  Jews  were  forced  to  build  for  their 
oppressor  the  treasure  cities  of  Pithom  and  Raamses.^ 
The  town  Raamses  was  called  after  the  name  of  its 
builder  Rameses  II.  ; and  the  remains  of  a town  called 
Pithom — whose  name  means  the  ‘Temple  of  Tmu’ — 
have  been  found  by  M.  Naville  at  a place  which  the 
monuments  there  call  Thiikii  or  Thuknt,  and  which  is 
said  to  be  the  Succoth  of  the  Old  Testament.  There 
are  difficulties  in  the  way  of  accepting  this  theory,  but 
their  discussion  here  would  be  tedious  to  the  non-expert, 
and  quite  out  of  place. 

’ We  have  in  a papyrus  a description  of  the  happy  town  of  Raamses 
contained  in  a poem,  the  concluding  lines  of  which  run  : — 

There  is  a supply  of  provisions  there  daily. 

Gladness  dwells  within  it. 

None  speak  scorn  of  it. 

There  are  sweet  drinks  in  Aa-nechtu  ; 
its  liquors  are  like  sugar, 
its  syrups  like  the  taste  of 
caroobs  surpassing  honey. 

Joy  remains  there  prolonged,  unceasing. 

Kameses,  the  war-god  of  the  world,  is  its  god 


Egyptian  Brickmakers  and  Brickmaking. 

Man  waiting  to  be  laden.  3,  6.  Taskmasters.  4,  5.  Men  carrying  bricks.  8,  14.  Stacking  the  moulded  bricks.  9.  Digging  the  clay 
10.  Man  laden  with  prepared  clay.  11.  Mixing  the  clay.  15.  lank  for  water 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  93 

In  addition  to  the  cruelty  already  exercised  toward 
the  children  of  Israel,  the  Pharaoh  next  gave  orders  to 
throw  all  the  new-born  male  children  into  the  river 
Nile:  though,  in  spite  of  all  the  watchfulness  employed 
in  this  matter,  the  child  Moses  was  saved  by  being  put 
in  an  ark  of  bulrushes,  and  laid  among  the  reeds  of  the 
river.  This  ark  was  made  of  the  papyrus  plant,  and  it 
has  been  pointed  out  that  the  mother  made  the  ark  of 
this  substance  because  it  was  imagined  by  the  Egyptians 
to  be  a preservative  against  the  attacks  of  crocodiles  and 
other  noxious  beasts.  When  Pharaoh’s  daughter  found 
the  child,  she  decided  to  adopt  it  and  bring  it  up  ; and 
there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  future  of  the  Jewish 
nation  was  much  influenced  by  her  act.  As  soon  as  he 
was  of  a sufflcient  age  he  would  be  sent  to  the  Egyptian 
schools  ; there  he  would  learn  all  that  the  most  celebrated 
and  profound  masters  of  the  day  could  teach  : and  after 
some  years  he  would  return,  being  skilled  in  writing  and 
mathematics,  and  learned  in  all  matters  relating  to  the 
Egyptian  religion,  including  its  numerous  branches  of 
legend,  myth,  and  history.  The  manners  and  customs  of 
the  best  of  the  Egyptians  would  be  familiar  to  him,  as 
well  as  the  rules  of  government  : and  such  learning  was  a 
fitting  help  for  his  divine  mission,  as  it  enabled  him  to 
fight  Pharaoh  with  his  own  weapons,  while  it  taught  the 
great  deliverer  of  his  race  how  to  rule,  and  judge,  and  to 
provide  for  the  necessities  of  the  people  of  Israel  in 
future  days. 

There  is  no  direct  mention  of  the  Israelites  on  the 


94 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


monuments  or  in  the  papyri,  it  is  true,  neither  is  there 
any  representation  of  their  servitude  ; but  it  will  be  seen 
from  what  has  been  said  above  that  the  references  and 
allusions  in  the  Bible  to  Egypt  and  the  Egyptians  are 
perfectly  accurate.  The  Amu,  the  representatives  of  the 
Semitic  race  generally,  are  depicted  as  brick-makers, 
and  literally  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  : hence 
none  need  expect  that  every  family  or  tribe  of  this 
numerous  and  wide-spreading  race  would  be  portrayed 
on  the  temples,  or  walls,  or  tombs.  Also,  there  is  no 
mention  of  the  plagues  which  came  upon  the  oppressors  ; 
but  the  nations  of  antiquity  were  not  given  to  chronicling 
the  mi.sfortunes  that  overtook  them.  The  persecution 
which  Rameses  II.  began  was  continued  with  vigour  by 

Meri-en-Ptah  or  Meneptah[  ^ 8 ^ 

The  bricks  had  to  be  made  just  the  same,  and  the 
appointed  ‘ tale  ’ brought  at  the  end  of  the  day.  Relying 
upon  the  long-sufferance  and  the  captivity  of  the  hosts 
of  Israel,  he  increased  their  burdens,  and  made  their 
lives  so  hard  that  their  groans  mounted  up  to  the 
throne  of  God.  The  edict  of  deliverance  came,  the 
people  went  out  in  haste,  but  with  riches,  and  the  heart- 
hardened  Pharaoh  and  the  chiefs  of  his  host  were 
destroyed.  The  route  of  the  Exodus  has  been  a 
subject  of  much  discussion  and  much  conjecture  ; but  it 
will  suffice  to  say  that  each  of  the  theories  hitherto  laid 
down  offers  many  difficulties,  and  a mere  enumeration 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  95 


of  them  here  would  occupy  much  space,  and  give  no 
satisfactory  result. 

After  Israel  had  gone  forth  out  of  Egypt,  for  some 
two  or  three  centuries  there  were  no  friendly  relations 
between  the  two  nations  until  Solomon’s  time,  when  we 
are  told  that  ‘Solomon  made  affinity  with  Pharaoh  king 
of  Egypt,  and  took  Pharaoh's  daughter,  and  brought  her 
into  the  city  of  David  ; ’ ^ but  meanwhile  the  twentieth 
dynasty  had  enjoyed  its  rule,  and  made  way  for  the 
twenty-first  dynasty,  whose  first  king  was  called 
Harhor  or  Herher,  and  was  a priest  of  the  god  Amen. 
The  Egyptians  again  come  in  contact  with  Israel  under 
the  reign  of  Sheshank,  or  Shishak,  the  first  king  of  the 
twenty-second  dynasty.  ‘ In  the  fifth  year  of  King 
Rehoboam,  Shishak  king  of  Egypt  came  up  against 
Jerusalem,  because  they  had  transgre.ssed  against  the 
Lord,  with  twelve  hundred  chariots,  and  threescore 
thousand  horsemen  : and  the  people  were  without 
number  that  came  with  him  out  of  Egypt ; the  Lubims, 
the  Sukkiims  and  the  Ethiopians.  And  he  took  the 
fenced  cities  which  pertained  to  Judah,  and  came  to 
Jerusalem.’^  A list  of  the  towns  captuted  by  Shishak 
is  given  on  a wall  at  Thebes  ; and  among  them  we  find 
Bethhoron,  Ajalon,  Megiddo,  Edom,  and  ‘ Judah-melek,’ 
which  Dr.  Birch  considers  to  be  the  royal  city  of  Judah, 
i.e.,  Jerusalem.® 

By  the  time  of  the  twenty-fifth  dynasty  Egypt  had 

* I Kings  iii.  I.  "2  Chron  xii.  2-4. 

■'*  ‘ History  of  Egypt,’  p.  157. 


96 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


become  divided  into  a number  of  small  principalities, 
which  the  Ethiopian  prince  Pi-ankhi  ruled  over  at 
Noph.*  During  the  latter  years  of  his  reign,  a rebellion 
of  the  native  princes,  headed  by  Nimrod  the  prince  of 
llcrmopolis,  the  chief  of  Menouthes,  and  others,  broke 
out ; but  the  Ethiopian  prince  assembled  his  forces, 
and  having  beaten  the  rebels  in  a series  of  successful 
battles,  he  became  lord  of  all  Egypt.  Concerning 
Tirhakah,^  a successor  of  Pi-ankhi,  we  derive  very 
important  information  from  the  Assyrian  inscriptions. 
Tirhakah  had  been  defeated  by  Esarhaddon,  who  had 
divided  the  country  of  Egypt  into  a number  of  districts, 
generally  under  Egyptian  governors  ; some  of  the  rulers 
were,  however,  Assyrian,  and  a few  of  the  Egyptian 
towns  were  re-named  with  Assyrian  names.  Tirhakah 
had  incited  the  king  of  Tyre  to  rebel  against  the  Assyrian 
authority,  and  hence  he  brought  down  upon  himself 
Esarhaddon’s  attack,  which  resulted  in  his  subjugation  in 
the  twenty-third  year  of  his  reign.  The  Ethiopian 
kings  had  offered  help  to  the  Jewish  nation  if  they 
would  resist  the  Assyrians ; but  Egypt's  growing 
weakness  was  well  known,  for  Rab-shakeh,  remembering 
the  successful  attacks  that  Shalmaneser  had  made 
against  dependencies  of  Egypt,  taunted  Hezekiah  with 
the  forlornness  of  any  hope  which  was  based  upon 

' Is.  xix.  13  ; Jer.  ii.  16;  xlvi,  14,  19;  Ezek.  xxx.  13-16. 

* The  Tirhakah  of  2 Kings  xix.  9 ; Is.  xxxvii.  9 ; and  the 

^ |-j^  hieroglyphs. 


ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE  PENTATEUCH,  ETC.  97 


Egyptian  assistance,  and  compared  Egypt’s  king  to 
‘a  bruised  reed.’^  ‘In  the  beginning  of  the  reign  of 
Assurbanipal,  Esarhaddon’s  son,  Tirhakah  made  another 
attempt  to  become  sole  king  of  Egypt ; and  having 
collected  a large  army  he  entered  Memphis  and  scattered 
the  Assyrian  rulers.  Assurbanipal  marched  promptly 
against  the  rebel,  and  defeated  him  with  great  slaughter. 
Tirhakah  then  fled  to  Napata,  where  he  with  others 
made  arrangements  for  another  rebellion ; and  he 
succeeded  so  well  that  he  conquered  Upper  Egypt,  and 
actually  gained  possession  of  Thebes.  Assurbanipal 
sent  an  army  against  him,  and  Tirhakah  was  compelled 
to  retire  to  Napata,  where  he  died,  and  so  the  twenty- 
fifth  dynasty  came  to  an  end. 

Two  of  the  kings  of  the  next  dynasty  are  mentioned  in 

; the  Bible,  Pharaoh  Necho  and  Pharaoh 

; Hophra  | 'O’J.  The  first  met  Josiah,  king  of  Judah, 

in  battle  at  Megiddo,  where  Josiah  was  slain,  and  set 
up  Jehoiakim  as  king  in  the  place  of  Josiah’s  eldest  son 
Jehoahaz,  the  lawful  heir.  His  power  was,  however, 
broken  by  Nebuchadnezzar  IT,  king  of  Babylon,  and 
' we  read  that  ‘the  king  of  Egypt  came  not  again  any 
more  out  of  his  land.’^  The  second.  Pharaoh  Hophra, 

! assisted  Jehoiakim  and  Zedekiah,  kings  of  Judah,  to  rebel 
il  against  their  lord,  Nebuchadnezzar;  but  this  was  merely 
' inviting  the  conquest  of  Egypt  at  the  hands  of  the 
1;  Babylonian  king,  and  a few  years  after  the  prophecies  of 
I * 2 Kings  xviii.  21.  ^ 2 Kings  xxiv.  7. 


G 


98 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


Ezekiel  and  Jeremiah  regarding  its  destruction  were 
fulfilled.  During  the  reign  of  Psammetichus  I.  the  great 
temples  at  Sais,  Thebes,  Memphis  and  elsewhere  were 
repaired.  This  king  made  use  of  the  Greeks  in  the 
battle-field,  and  after  the  wars  gave  them  a settlement 
near  Bubastis. 

There  was  one  among  the  last  kings  who  caused 
the  fast-fading  light  of  Plgypt’s  glory  to  flicker  brightl)^ 
and  this  was  Amasis  II.  After  his  death  the  country 
was  invaded  by  Cambyses  the  Persian,  who  became 
king,  and  was  the  first  of  the  Persian  dynasty  of 
Egyptian  kings.  Their  rule  lasted  for  about  one  hundred 
years  ; and  following  them  came  a few  Egyptian  kings  of 
little  importance  ; their  reigns  were  very  short,  and  they 
in  their  turn  were  succeeded  by  another  Persian  dynasty. 
Eor  some  time  past  Egypt  had  ceased  to  be  Egyptian  ; 
the  various  conquerors  of  the  country  had  caused  new 
customs  to  spring  up ; the  use  of  the  old  system  of 
hieroglyphics  had  now  practically  died  out  ; the  national 
spirit  was  broken,  and  from  this  time  forward  Egypt 
was  a dependency  and  tributary  to  whatever  king 
arose  and  had  power  to  seize  it.  The  nation  with  a 
history  that  numbered  thousands  of  years,  and  the 
country  that  had  shed  the  light  of  civilization  abroad 
when  those  round  about  were  steeped  in  barbarism  and 
ignorance,  now  sank  into  a darkness  which  obscured 
and  eventually  swallowed  up  the  glory  and  majesty  of 
the  Pharaohs  and  their  land. 


99 


CHAPTER  V. 

ICgvptian  Literature. 

A LARGE  portion  of  the  literature  of  P-gypt  comes  down 
to  us  in  the  shape  of  historical  inscriptions  graven 
upon  pyramids,  obelisks,  walls  of  temples,  and  stelrc. 
The  sentences  are  sometimes  short  and  abrupt  ; but  fre- 
quently they  have  a kind  of  rhythm  which  is  exceedingly 
fine,  and,  owing  to  the  parallelism  of  the  members, 
reminds  us  of  many  of  the  Psalms.  If,  however,  vve  were 
obliged  to  depend  upon  stone  sculptures  for  our  idea  of 
the  Egyptian  literature,  we  should  not  have  an  adequate 
idea  of  it  at  all.  Though  the  early  ‘ pyramid  texts,’  with 
their  rubrics,  reveal  to  us  the  inscriptions  which  were 
fitting  for  funereal  monuments,  they  give  us  no  idea  of 
the  wonderful  fairy  stories  which  we  obtain  from  the 
papyri.  We  have  already  stated  that  the  hieratic 
writing  was  the  writing  of  the  priests,  and  as  the  learning 
of  Egypt  was  locked  up  in  the  breasts  of  this  caste,  we 
must  look  to  their  works  to  understand  what  the 
literature  of  the  Egyptians  was.  It  must  not  be 
imagined  that  the  hieratic  is  the  only  sort  of  writing 
found  on  papyrus  ; on  the  contrary,  we  find  many 
papyrus  copies  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  in  hieroglyphs, 

G 2 


lOO 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


and  about  700  B.C.  in  demotic  also.  Still,  a very  large 
number  of  the  most  interesting  compositions  are  found 
on  papyrus  in  hieratic,  and  we  give  a few  specimens  from 
the  best  of  them.  The  first  is  a translation  of  the  very 
celebrated  prize  poem  by  the  scribe  Pentaur,  giving 
a thrilling  account  of  the  battle  of  Rameses  II.  with  the 
Khita  or  Hittites.  This  prize  poem  was  considered  so 
fine  that  it  was  inscribed  upon  the  walls  of  temples,  and 
a large  number  of  copies  must  have  been  made.  A 
papyrus  which  the  British  Museum  possesses  contains 
a very  complete  copy  of  it.  Professor  Lushington’s 
translation  is  as  follows  : — 

The  Poem  of  Pentaur  on  the  Conquest  of  the  Khiti 
BY  Rameses  II. ^ 

Several  days  after  that  King  Rameses  was  in  the  town 
Rameses  Miamon.  Moving  northward  he  reached  the  border 
of  Katesh  ; then  marched  onw'ard  like  his  father  (Mentu, 
towards)  Hanruta.  The  first  brigade  of  Ammon,  ‘ that  brings 
victory  of  King  Rameses  ’ (accompanied  him).  He  was  nearing 
the  town  ; then  the  vile  chief  of  Cheta  came ; he  gathered 
(forces)  from  the  margin  of  the  sea  to  the  land  of  Cheta ; came 
all  the  Naharina,  the  Airatu,  the  Masu,  the  Kashkash,  the 
Kairakamasha,  the  Leka,  Katuatana,  Katesh,  Akarita, 
Anaukasa,  the  whole  Mashanata  likewise,  nor  left  he  silver 
or  gold  in  his  land,  he  stripped  it  of  all  his  treasures  (which) 
he  brought  wnth  him.  The  vile  chief  of  Cheta,  with  many 
allies  accompanying  him,  lay  ambushed  to  north-west  of 
(Katesh).  Now  King  Rameses  was  all  alone,  no  other  wdth 

' Prof.  Lushington’s  translation,  in  the  ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  ii.  p.  61. 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE, 


lOI 


Iiim,  the  brigade  of  Ammon  marching  after  him  ; the  brigade 
(of  Ra?)  at  the  dyke  west  of  the  town  Shabutuna;  the  brigade 
of  Ptah  in  the  centre,  the  brigade  of  Set  on  the  border  of  the 
land  of  Amairo.  Then  the  vile  Cheta  chief  made  an  (advance) 
with  men  and  horses  numerous  as  sand  ; they  were  three  men 
on  a car,  they  had  joined  with  every  champion  of  Chetaland, 
equipped  with  all  war  gear,  in  (countless  numbers) ; they  lay 
in  ambush  hidden  to  north-west  of  the  town  Katesh  ; then  they 
charged  the  brigade  of  Ra  Harmachis  in  the  centre,  as  they 
were  marching  on,  and  were  not  prepared  to  fight.  Foot  and 
horse  of  King  Raineses  gave  way  before  them  ; they  then  took 
Katesh  on  the  western  bank  of  Hanruta  ; this  news  was  told  to 
the  King  ; then  he  rose  as  Mentu,  he  seized  his  arms  for  battle  ; 
he  clutched  his  corslet  like  Bar  in  his  hour  ; the  great  horse 
that  bore  him,  ‘Victory  in  Thebes’  his  name,  from  the  stable 
of  Raineses  Miamon,  within  the  van.  The  King  drew  himself 
up,  he  pierced  the  line  of  the  foe,  the  vile  Cheta ; he  was  all 
alone,  no  other  with  him.  When  he  advanced  to  survey 
behind  him,  he  found  there  encircled  him  2,500  chariots 
stopping  his  way  out.  Every  champion  of  the  vile  Cheta  and 
abundant  lands  with  him  of  Airatu,  of  Maasu,  of  Patasu,  and 
of  Kashkash,  of  Iriuna,  of  Katuatana,  of  Chirabu,  of  Akarita, 
Katesh,  Leka,  they  were  three  men  on  a car ; they  made  (a 
charge),  there  was  no  chief  with  me,  no  marshal,  no  captain 
of  archers,  no  officers  ; fled  were  my  troops  and  horse.  I was 
left  alone  of  them  to  fight  the  foe.  Then  said  King  Raineses, 
‘ What  art  thou,  my  father  Ammon  ? what  father  denies  his 
son  ? For  have  I done  aught  without  thee  ? Have  I not 
stepped  or  stayed  looking  to  thee,  not  transgressing  the 
decisions  of  thy  mouth,  nor  passing  far  astray  beyond  thy 
counsels  ? Sovran  Lord  of  Egypt,  who  makest  to  bow  down 


102 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


the  peoples  tl  at  withstand  thee  ; what  are  these  Amu  to  thy 
heart  ? Ammon  brings  them  low  who  know  not  God.  Have 
I not  made  thee  monuments  very  many  ? filled  thy  temple 
with  my  spoils  ? built  thee  a house  for  millions  of  years  ? given 
treasures  to  thy  shrine  ? dedicated  to  thee  all  lands,  enriched 
thy  sacrifices  ? I have  slain  to  thee  30,000  bulls,  with  all  wood 
of  sweet  scent,  good  incense  coming  from  my  hand.  The 
making  of  thy  court  completed,  I have  built  thee  great  towers 
of  stone  above  thy  gate,  grov'es  everlasting.  I brought  thee 
obelisks  from  Elephantine  ; it  is  I who  had  eternal  stones 
carried,  guiding  for  thee  galleys  on  the  sea,  conveying  to  thee 
the  labours  of  all  lands.  When  was  it  said  such  happened  in 
other  time  ? Shame  on  him  who  opposes  thy  counsels,  well 
be  to  him  who  approves  thee,  Ammon.  What  thou  hast  done 
is  from  a heart  of  love  ; I call  on  thee,  my  father  Ammon. 
I am  amid  multitudes  unknown,  nations  gathered  against  me  ; 
I am  alone,  no  other  with  me ; my  foot  and  horse  have  left  me. 
I called  aloud  to  them,  none  of  them  heard  ; I cried  to  them, 
I find  Ammon  worth  more  than  millions  of  soldiers,  100,000 
cavalry,  10,000  brothers  and  sons,  were  they  gathered  all  in  one. 
No  works  of  many  men  avail,  Ammon  against  them.  I attain 
that  by  the  counsels  of  thy  mouth,  O Ra,  not  overstepping  thy 
counsels.  Lo,  have  I not  done  homage  to  the  farthest  ends  of 
the  land?’  My  cry  rang  unto  Hermonthis  ; Ra  heard  when  ] 
called,  he  put  his  hand  to  me,  I was  glad ; he  called  to  me 
behind ; ‘ . . . . Rameses  Miamon,  T am  with  thee, 
I thy  father  Ra,  my  hand  is  with  thee.  I am  worth  to  thee 
100,000  joined  in  one;  I am  Sovran  Lord  of  Victory,  loving 
valour  ; iff  find  courage,  my  heart  overflows  with  joy;  all  my 
doing  is  fulfilled.’  I am  as  Mentu,  I shoot  to  the  right,  I seize 
on  my  left,  like  Bar  in  his  fury  against  them;  I find  2,500 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


103 


chariots,  I am  amidst  them,  then  were  they  overthrown  before 
my  steeds ; not  one  of  them  found  his  hand  to  fight,  their 
hearts  shrank  within  them  ; their  hands  all  dropped,  they  knew 
not  how  to  shoot,  they  found  no  heart  to  grasp  the  spear ; I 
made  them  fall  into  the  water  as  fall  crocodiles,  they  tumbled 
headlong  one  over  another ; I slew  them  ; my  pleasure  was 
that  none  of  them  should  look  behind  him,  nor  any  return  ; 
whoever  falls  of  them  he  must  not  raise  himself  up.  Then  the 
vile  chief  of  Cheta  stood  amid  his  army  to  see  the  prowess  of 
King  Raineses.  The  King  was  all  alone,  no  soldiers  with  him, 
no  horse ; he  turned  in  dread  of  the  King.  Then  he  made 
his  mighty  men  go  in  numbers,  each  one  of  them  with  cars, 
they  brought  all  war  harness,  the  chief  of  Airatu,  the  chief  of 
Masu,  the  chief  of  Iriuna,  the  Leka,  the  chief  of  Tantani,  the 
Kashkash,  the  chief  of  Kairkamash,  the  Chirabu,  the  allies  of 
Cheta,  all  banded  in  one,  2,500  chariots.  Charging  the  midst 
of  them  fiercer  than  flame,  I rushed  upon  them,  I was  as  Mentu ; 
I let  my  hand  taste  them  in  a moment’s  space,  I hew  at  them 
to  slay  them  in  their  seats  ; each  one  of  them  called  to  his 
fellow,  saying,  ‘ No  mortal  born  is  he  whoso  is  among  us.  Set 
the  mighty  of  strength  ; Bar  in  bodily  form,  verily  whoever 
comes  close  to  him,  his  hand  droops  through  all  his  frame,  they 
know  not  how  to  grasp  bow  nor  spear  when  they  have  seen  him.’ 

Coming  to  the  junction  of  roads,  the  King  pursued  them  as 
a griffin.  I was  slaying  them,  none  escaped  me;  I gave  a call 
to  my  foot  and  horse,  saying,  ‘ Be  firm,  be  firm  in  heart,  my 
foot  and  horse ; behold  my  victory.  I was  alone.  Turn  (Ammon) 
my  support,  his  hand  with  me.’  Now  when  Menna  my 
Squire  saw  me  thus  encircled  by  many  chariots,  he  cowered, 
his  heart  quailed,  great  terror  entered  his  limbs,  he  said  to  the 
King,  ‘ My  gracious  Lord,  Prince  revered,  valiant  exceed- 


104 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


ingly,  protector  of  Egypt  in  day  of  battle,  verily  we  stand 
alone  amid  the  foe,  how  make  a stand  to  save  breath  to  our 
mouth?  how  rescue  us.  King  Rameses,  my  gracious  Lord?’ 
The  King  said  to  his  Squire,  ‘ Courage,  courage,  my  Squire,  I 
will  pierce  them  as  a hawk ; I will  slay  and  hew  them,  cast 
them  to  the  dust.  W’hat  forsooth  to  thy  heart  are  these  Amu  ? 
Ammon  brings  very  low  them  who  know  not  God,  who  brightens 
not  his  face  on  millions  of  them.’  King  Rameses  dashed  into 
the  van,  then  he  pierced  the  foe,  the  caitiff  Cheta,  six  times, 
one  and  all,  he  pierced  them.  I was  as  Bar  in  his  season,  pre- 
vailing over  them  I slew  them,  none  escaped.  Then  the  King 
called  to  his  archers  and  cavalry,  likewise  to  his  chiefs  who 
failed  to  fight.  ‘ Naught  profits  full  heart  in  you.  Is  there  one 
of  them  who  did  his  duty  in  my  land?  Had  I not  stood  as 
Royal  Master,  ye  were  downstricken.  I make  Princes  of  you 
always.  I set  son  in  his  father’s  estate  : if  any  evil  comes  on 
Egypt,  ye  quit  your  service  ....  Whoever  comes  to  make 
petitions  I always  pay  regard  to  his  claims.  Never  any  Royal 
Master  did  for  his  soldiers  what  King  Rameses  has  done  for 
you,  I let  you  sit  in  your  houses  and  your  towns  ; ye  have  not 
performed  my  bests,  my  archers  and  cavalry.  I have  given 

them  a road  to  their  cities, Lo,  ye  have  played 

cowards  all  together,  not  one  of  you  stood  to  aid  me  while  I had 
to  fight.  Blessed  be  Ammon  Turn,  lo,  I am  over  Egypt  as  my 
father  Ra  ; there  was  not  one  of  them  to  observe  my  commands 
in  the  land  of  Egypt.  O noble  feat ! for  consecrating  images 
in  Thebes,  Ammon’s  city  : great  shame  on  that  act  of  my  foot 
and  horse,  greater  than  to  tell,  for  lo,  I achieve  my  victories  ; 
there  was  no  soldier  with  me,  no  horseman  ; every  land  beholds 
the  path  of  my  victories  and  might.  I was  all  alone,  no  other 
with  me,  no  chiefs  behind,  no  marshals,  no  captains  of  the 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


105 


army,  no  officers,  all  peoples  saw  and  will  tell  my  name  to  limits 
of  lands  unknown.  If  any  warriors,  relics  of  my  hand,  remain, 
they  will  turn  at  seeing  me  ; if  10,000  of  them  come  upon  me, 
their  feet  will  not  stand  firm,  they  will  fly  ; whoever  would  shoot 
straight  at  me,  down  dropped  their  arrows,  even  as  they  ap- 
proached me.  Now  when  my  foot  and  horse  saw,  I was 
addressed  as  Mentu,  the  strong  sword  of  Ra,  my  father,  who 
was  with  me  in  time  of  need,  he  made  all  peoples  as  straw 
before  my  horses.  They  were  marching  one  after  another  to 
the  camp  at  eventide ; they  found  all  the  tribes  through  whom 
I pierced  strewn  in  carnage,  whelmed  amid  their  blood,  with 
all  brave  fighters  of  Cheta-land,  with  children  and  brothers  of 
their  chief.  Morning  lighted  the  field  of  Katesh  ; no  space 
was  found  to  tread  on  for  their  multitude.  Then  my  soldiers 
came  glorifying  our  names  to  see  what  was  done,  my  cavalry 
likewise,  extolling  my  prowess.  ‘What  a goodly  deed  of 
valour ! firm  in  heart,  thou  hast  saved  thy  army,  thy  cavalry, 
son  of  Turn,  framed  by  his  arms,  spoiling  Cheta-land  by  thy 
victorious  sword.  Royal  Conqueror,  none  is  like  thee.  King 
fighting  for  his  host  on  day  of  battle,  thou  great  of  heart, 
first  in  the  fray,  thou  reckest  not  for  all  peoples  banded 
together,  thou  great  conqueror  before  thy  army,  in  the  face 
of  the  whole  land.  No  gainsaying.  Thou  guardest  Egypt, 
chastisest  lands  of  thy  foes,  thou  bruisest  back  of  Cheta  for 
ever.’  Then  the  King  addressed  his  foot  and  horse,  likewise 
his  chiefs  who  failed  to  fight : ‘Not  well  done  of  one  of  you, 
your  leaving  me  alone  amid  the  foe ; there  came  no  chiefs, 
officer  or  captain  of  host  to  aid  me.  I fought  repelling  millions 
of  tribes  all  alone.  “ Victory  in  Thebes”  and  “ Nehrahruta”  (my 
horses)  they  are  all  I found  to  succour  me.  I was  all  alone  in 
the  midst  of  foes.  I will  let  them  eat  corn  before  Ra  daily. 


I06  THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 

when  I am  in  my  royal  palace  : these  are  they  found  in  the 
midst  of  the  foe,  and  my  Marshal  Menna  my  Squire,  with  the 
officers  of  my  household  who  were  near  me,  the  witnesses  of 
conflict  who  saw  them  fall  before  the  King;  with  victorious 
Hrength  he  felled  100,000  all  at  once,  by  his  sword  of  might.’ 
At  dawn  he  joined  in  fray  of  battle  ; he  went  terrible  to  fight, 
as  a bull  terrible  with  pointed  horns  he  rose  against  them  as 
Mentu  ordering  the  fray,  alike  valiant  in  entering  battle,  fighting 
fierce  as  a hawk,  overthrowing  them  as  Sechet  who  sends  flames 
of  fire  in  the  face  of  thy  foes;  as  Ra  in  his  rising  at  the  front 
of  dawn,  shooting  flames  upon  the  wicked ; one  man  amongst 
them  calls  to  his  fellow,  ‘ Mark,  take  heed,  verily  Sechet  the 
mighty  is  with  him  ; she  guides  his  horses  : her  hand  is  with 
him.’  AVlioever  approaches  sinks  to  ruin;  she  sends  fire  to 
burn  their  limbs,  they  were  brought  to  kiss  the  dust.  King 
Rameses  prevailed  over  them,  he  slew  them,  they  escaped  not, 
they  were  overthrown  under  his  steeds,  they  were  strewn 
huddled  in  their  gore.  Then  the  vile  Cheta  Prince  sent  to  do 
homage  to  the  great  name  of  King  Rameses.  ‘ Thou  art  Ra 
Harmachis,  thou  art  Set  mighty  of  strength,  son  of  Nut,  Bar 
himself ; thy  terror  is  over  Cheta-land  brought  low  : thou  hast 
broken  back  of  Cheta  for  ever  and  ever.’  Then  came  a herald 
bearing  a scroll  in  his  hand  to  the  great  name  of  Rameses,  ‘To 
soothe  the  heart  of  the  King,  Horus,  conquering  Bull,  dear  to 
Ma,  Prince  guarding  thy  army,  valiant  with  the  sword,  bulwark 
of  his  troops  in  day  of  battle.  King  mighty  of  strength,  great 
Sovran,  Sun  powerful  in  truth,  approved  of  Ra,  mighty  in 
victories,  Rameses  Miamon.  The  servant  speaks  to  tell  the 
King,  My  gracious  Lord,  fair  son  of  Ra  Harmachis,  truly  thou 
art  born  of  Ammon,  issue  of  his  body,  he  gives  thee  all  lands 
together,  land  of  Egypt  and  land  of  Cheta,  they  offer  their 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


107 


service  beneath  thy  feet  to  thee,  Ra,  prevailing  over  them. 
Yea,  thy  spirit  is  mighty,  thy  strength  weighs  heavy  on  Cheta- 
land  ; is  it  good  to  kill  thy  servants  ? thou  exercisest  thy  might 
upon  them  ; art  thou  not  softened?  thou  earnest  yesterday  and 

slewest  100,000  of  them;  thou  art  come  to-day 

victorious  King,  Spirit  giad  in  battle,  grant  us  breath  of  life.’ 
Then  the  King  rose  in  life  and  strength,  as  Mentu  in  his  season. 
Then  he  bade  summon  all  the  leaders  of  foot  and  horse,  his 
army  all  assembled  in  one  place  to  let  them  hear  the  message 
sent  by  the  great  chief  of  Cheta  to  King  Raineses.  They 
answered,  saying  to  the  King,  ‘’Tis  very  good  to  let  fall  thy 

wrath.  Prince,  Sovran  Lord, who  can  soothe 

thee  in  thy  day  of  anger  ? ’ Then  King  Raineses  gave  assent 
to  their  words  ; he  gave  his  hand  in  peace,  returning  to  the 
South,  passing  in  peace  to  Egypt  with  his  chiefs,  his  foot  and 
horse,  in  life  and  strength,  in  sight  of  all  lands.  Dread  of  his 
might  is  in  every  heart,  he  protects  his  army,  all  nations  come 
to  the  great  name,  falling  down  and  adoring  his  noble 
countenance.  King  Raineses  reached  fort  Raineses  Miainon 
great  image  of  Ra  Harmachis  reposing  in  the  royal  palace  in 
'Fhebes,  as  the  sun’s  orbs,  on  his  two-fold  throne  ; Ammon 
hailed  his  form,  saying,  ‘ Glory  to  thee,  son  loved  of  us, 
Rameses  Miainon  (to  whom  we  grant)  festivities  for  ever  on 
the  throne  of  thy  father  Turn.  All  lands  are  overthrown  under 
his  feet ; he  has  quelled  (all  enemies).’  Written  in  the  year  7, 
month  Payni,  in  the  reign  of  King  Rameses  Miainon,  giver  of 
life  for  ever  and  ever  like  his  father  Ra  ....  To  the 

Head  Guardian  of  the  royal  writings by  the 

Royal  Scribe  Pentaur. 

When  the  Egyptian  wrote  history,  he  related  the 
facts  clearly  and  concisely,  and  with  but  few  unnecessary 


io8 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


additions ; these  consist  principally  of  the  incessant 
repetition  of  the  names  and  titles  of  honour  of  the 
Pharaohs.^  It  seems  probable  that  the  Egyptians  did 
not  write  a compendium  of  the  history  of  their  nation, 
for  as  each  king  proclaimed  his  own  works  and  glories 
upon  his  edifices  and  buildings,  succeeding  generations 
could  read  the  history  of  the  times  before  upon  them ; 
yet  they  forgot  that  dynasties  are  overthrown  and 
monuments  destroyed.  If  we  had  a complete  native 
history  of  Egypt,  however  brief,  what  a number  of 
unproven  facts  it  would  make  certain  ! 

It  is  evident  that  with  a nation  like  the  Egyptians, 
possessing  such  a number  of  gods,  a very  large  portion 
of  their  works  would  turn  upon  religion  and  myths  about 
the  gods,  hymns  to  them,  and  the  like.  To  the  Nile,  as 
a god  whose  practical  gifts  would  be  apparent  to  all, 
would  the  pious  Egyptian  poet  address  his  devotions. 
The  two  following  extracts  will  show  the  reverence  in 
which  it  was  held.  The  hieroglyphs  surrounding  the 
pages  are  not  part  of  the  text  of  which  the  hymns  are 
translations,  but  are  given  simply  as  an  illustration  of 
hieroglyphic  text.  They  are  taken  from  Maspero’s 
‘La  Pyramide  du  Roi  Pepi  P",’  lines  163  and  164. 

* As  a specimen  of  this,  see  the  first  few  lines  of  the  translation  of  the 
Rosetta  Stone  on  p.  22. 


I lO 


% 


I. 

Blessed  be  the  good  god,^ 

the  Nun^-loving  Nile, 

the  father  of  the  gods  of  the  holy  Nine 

dwelling  on  the  waters, 

the  plenty,  wealth,  and  food  of  Egypt. 

He  maketh  everybody  live  by  himself, 
riches  are  on  his  path, 
and  plenteousness  is  in  his  fingers ; 
the  pious  are  rejoiced  at  his  coining. 

Thou  art  alone  and  self-created, 
one  knoweth  not  whence  thou  art. 

But  on  the  day  thou  comest  forth  and 
openest  thyself, 
everybody  is  rejoicing. 

Thou  art  a lord  of  many  fish  and  gifts, 
and  thou  bestowest  plenteousness  on  Egypt. 
The  cycle  of  the  holy  Nine  knoweth  not 
whence  thou  art, 
thou  art  their  life. 

P’or  when  thou  comest  their  offerings  are 
redoubled, 

and  their  altars  filled, 

and  they  are  shouting  when  thou  appearest. 


V 


^ ^^VWNA 

t P 


□ □ 


1 ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  x.  p.  37. 

2 /.e.,  Heaven-loving. 

3 Shu,  Tefnut,  Seb,  Nut,  Osiris,  Horus,  Isis,  Nephthys, 
and  Set. 


F] 


jI  JL  \ 


1 ; I 


□ 


/wvw\ 


p 


o 


00 

0 


II. 

He  giveth  light  on  his  coming  from  dark- 
ness 

in  the  pastures  of  his  cattle 

his  might  produceth  all ; 

what  was  not,  his  moisture  bringeth  to  life. 

Men  are  clothed  to  fill  his  gardens  : 

he  careth  -for  his  labourers. 

He  maketh  even  and  noontide, 
he  is  the  infinite  Ptah  and  Kabes. 

He  createth  all  works  therein, 

All  writing,  all  sacred  words. 

All  his  implements  in  the  North. 

The  hymn  is  addressed  to  thee  with  the 
harp ; 

It  is  played  wuth  a (skilful)  hand  to  thee  ! 
The  youths  rejoice  at  thee  ! 

Tliy  own  children. 

Thou  hast  rewarded  their  labour. 

There  is  a great  one  adorning  the  land  ; 
An  enlightener,  a buckler  in  front  of  men. 
Quickening  the  heart  in  depression. 
Loving  the  increase  of  all  his  cattle. 
Mortals  extol  (him),  and  the  cycle  of  gods  ! 
Aw'e  is  felt  by  the  terrible  ones  ; 


1 ‘ Records  of  the  Past,'  iv.  p.  in. 


/WvWX 


/VVW\A 


A 


1 12  THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 

his  son  {i.e.  Pharaoh)  is  made  Lord  of  all,  to  enlighten  all 
Egypt. 

Shine  forth,  shine  forth,  O Nile  ! shine  forth! 

Giving  life  to  his  oxen  by  the  pastures  I 
Shine  forth  in  glory,  O Nile. 

But  though  the  Nile  was  thus  hymned  and  praised  as 
the  giver  of  all  good  gifts  and  life  to  the  Egyptians,  the 
highest  and  best  praises  were  reserved  for  the  great  gods 
of  the  Egyptian  Pantheon.  The  sun-god  Ra,  as  the 
giver  of  light  and  warmth  to  the  world,  the  nourisher  of 
crops  and  the  dispeller  of  darkness,  was  a favourite 
theme  for  the  Egyptian  poet,  and  in  combination  with 
other  gods  the  most  beautiful  hymns,  full  of  noble 
epithets,  were  written  in  his  honour  ; as  for  example  : — 

Hail  to  thee  Ra,  Lord  of  truth  : 

whose  shrine  is  hidden.  Lord  of  the  gods  : 

Chepera  {i.e.,  the  Creator)  in  his  boat : 
at  whose  command  the  gods  were  made  ; 

Atum,  maker  of  men  ; 
supporting  their  works,  giving  them  life  : 
distinguishing  the  colour  of  one  from  another  ; 
listening  to  the  poor  who  is  in  distress  : 
gentle  of  heart  when  one  cries  unto  him. 

Deliverer  of  the  timid  man  from  the  violent  : 
judging  the  poor,  the  poor  and  the  oppressed  : 

Lord  of  wisdom  whose  precepts  are  wise  : 
at  whose  pleasure  the  Nile  overflows  ; 

Lord  of  mercy  most  loving  : 


* See  ‘Transactions  Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,’  ii.  p.  250. 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


113 


at  whose  coming  men  live  : 
opener  of  every  eye  : 
proceeding  from  the  firmament : 
causer  of  pleasure  and  light  : 
at  whose  goodness  the  gods  rejoice 
their  hearts  revive  when  they  see  him. 

*****  ■*■ 

Hail  to  thee  for  all  these  things  : 
the  One  alone  with  many  hands  ! 
lying  awake  while  all  men  lie  (asleep) 

Amen,  sustainer  of  all  things  : 

Atum,  Horus  of  the  horizon  : 
homage  to  thee  in  all  their  voices  ; 
salutation  to  thee  for  thy  mercy  unto  us  ; 
protestations  to  thee  who  hast  created  us. 

III. 

Thou  wakest  beauteous  Amen-Ra-Harmachis,  thou  watchest 
in  triumph,  Amen-Ra,  Lord  of  the  horizon.  O blessed  one 
beaming  in  splendour,  towed  by  thy  mariners  who  are  of  the 
unresting  gods,  sped  by  thy  mariners  of  the  unmoving  gods. 
Thou  comest  forth,  thou  ascendest,  thou  towerest  in  beauty, 

' thy  barge  divine  careers  wherein  thou  speedest,  blest  by  thy 
mother  Nut  each  day,  heaven  embraces  thee,  thy  foes  fall  as 
thou  turnest  thy  face  to  the  West  of  heaven.  Counted  are  thy 
bones,  collected  thy  limbs,  living  thy  flesh,  thy  members 
blossom,  thy  soul  blossoms,  glorified  is  thy  august  form, 
ladvanced  thy  state  on  the  road  of  darkness.  Ra  hath  quelled 
his  impious  foes,  heaven  rejoices,  earth  is  in  delight,  gods  and 
goddesses  are  in  festival  to  make  adoration  to  Ra-Hor,  as  they 
' * Compare  Psalm  cxxi.  4. 


H 


I 14  the  dwellers  on  the  NILE. 

see  him  rise  in  his  bark.  He  fells  the  wicked  in  his  season,  the 
abode  is  inviolate,  the  diadem  in  its  place,  the  urasus  has 
smitten  the  wicked.’* 

Following  close  upon  these  religious  hymns  come  the 
magical  texts,  the  knowledge  of  which  enabled  its 
possessor  to  drive  away  a disease  or  devil.  If  medicine 
was  taken  to  cure  the  disease,  then  an  incantation  or 
formula  was  said  at  the  time  of  taking  it,  that  the  drug 
might  do  its  work  swiftly  and  well  ; and  if  a man  was 
under  the  power  of  one  devil,  the  unfortunate  prayed 
to  another  and  mightier  devil,  or  a god,  to  protect  him 
from  his  power  of  injury.  An  extract  from  the  transla- 
tion of  a magical  text  by  Dr.  Birch  will  give  an  idea  of 
this  class  of  work  ; — ^ 

There  are  four  mansions  of  life,  Osiris  is  master  thereof. 
The  four  houses  are  Isis,  Nephthys,  Seb,  and  Nu.  Isis  is  placed 
in  one,  Nephthys  in  another,  Horus  in  one,  Tahuti  in  another, 
at  the  four  angles ; Seb  is  above,  Nu  is  below.  The  four  outer 
walls  are  of  stone.  It  has  two  stories,  its  foundation  is  sand, 
its  exterior  is  jasper,  one  is  placed  to  the  south,  another  to  the 

north,  another  to  the  west,  another  to  the  east 

Shu  takes  the  shape  of  an  eagle’s  wing ; he  makes  a lock  or 
tress  of  sheep’s  wool  to  go  round  this  god’s  neck  ; it  is  placed 
on  the  throat  of  Osiris.  Shu  says  ; ‘ O thou  shut  in  the  solar 
disk,  hidden  in  thy  house  1 O you  enemies  who  retain  the  breath 
far  from  him  turn  your  faces.  A lock  of  hair  has  been  made 
to  suffocate  your  souls.  I am  Shu  who  destroys  your  bodies.’ 

' See  full  translation  by  Prof.  Lushington,  ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  viii. 
p.  129. 

■ ‘ Records  f the  Past,’|vi.  p.  1 13 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


II5 

The  Egyptian  appears  to  have  been  very  devoted  to 
tales  of  the  imagination  ; for  an  instance  we  cannot  do 
better  than  paraphrase  the  Tale  of  the  Two  Brothers.^ 

There  were  two  brothers,  children  of  one  mother  and  of 
one  father.  Anpu  was  the  name  of  the  elder,  Bata  that  of 
the  younger.  Anpu  had  a house  and  a wife,  and  his  younger 
brother  was  like  a son  to  him.  He  followed  after  the  cattle,  he 
did  the  ploughing  and  all  the  labours  of  the  fields.  Behold 
his  younger  brother  was  so  good  a labourer  that  there  was  not 
Ills  equal  in  the  whole  land.  Now  while  the  younger  brother 
was  with  the  cattle  every  day  in  the  fields,  taking  them  home 
each  evening,  and  while  he  was  in  the  stables,  the  elder 
brother  sat  with  his  wife  and  ate  and  drank.  And  when  the 
day  dawned,  and  before  his  brother  rose  from  his  bed,  he  took 
bread  to  the  fields  and  called  the  labourers  to  eat  in  the  field. 
The  cattle  told  him  where  the  best  grasses  were,  and  he  under- 
stood their  language.  And  when  it  was  the  season  for  ploughing, 
the  elder  brother  said,  ‘ Come,  let  us  take  our  teams  for  plough- 
ing, for  the  land  has  made  its  appearance  ; go  and  fetch  seed 
for  us  from  the  village.’  And  the  younger  brother  found  the 
elder  brother’s  wife  sitting  at  her  toilet.  And  he  said,  ‘ Arise 
and  give  me  seed  that  I may  go  back  to  the  field,  because  my 
elder  brother  wishes  me  to  return  without  delay.’  Then  she 
said,  ‘ Go  open  the  bin,  and  take  thyself  whatever  thou  wilt,  my 
hair  would  fall  by  the  way.’  So  the  youth  entered  his  stable ; 
he  took  a large  vessel,  for  he  wished  to  take  a great  deal  of  seed, 
and  he  loaded  himself  with  grain  and  went  out  with  it.  And 
she  spoke  to  him  saying,  ‘ What  strength  is  there  in  thee,  indeed. 
I observe  thy  vigour  every  day.’  She  seized  upon  him  and  said, 

‘ Renouf,  ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  ii.  p.  136. 


II  2 


Il6  THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 

to  him,  ‘ Come  let  us  lie  down  for  an  instant’  The  youth 
became  like  a panther  with  fury  on  account  of  the  shameful 
discourse  which  she  had  addressed  to  him.  He  spoke  to  her, 
saying,  ‘ Verily  I have  looked  upon  thee  in  the  light  of  a 
mother,  and  thy  husband  in  the  light  of  a father  to  me.  What 
a great  abomination  is  this  which  thou  hast  mentioned  to  me. 
Do  not  repeat  it  again  to  me,  and  I will  not  speak  of  it  to  any 
one ; verily  I will  not  let  any  thing  of  it  come  forth  from  my 
mouth  to  any  man.’ 

Behold,  the  wife  of  his  elder  brother  was  alarmed  at  the 
discourse  which  she  had  held.  She  made  herself  like  one  who 
had  suffered  violence,  for  she  wished  to  say  to  her  husband, 
‘ It  is  thy  younger  brother  who  has  done  me  violence.’  Her 
husband  returned  at  evening  and  found  his  wife  lying  as  if 
murdered  by  a ruffian.  And  she  said,  ‘ No  one  has  conversed 
with  me  except  thy  younger  brother ; when  he  came  to  fetch 
seed  for  thee,  he  found  me  sitting  alone,  and  said  insulting 
words  to  me.  But  I did  not  listen  to  him.  Behold  am  I not 
thy  mother,  and  thy  elder  brother  is  he  not  like  a father  to  thee  ? 
This  is  what  I said  to  him,  and  he  got  alarmed,  and  did  me 
violence  that  I might  not  make  a report  to  thee ; but  if  thou 
lettest  him  live  I shall  kill  myself.’  And  the  elder  brother 
became  like  a panther ; he  made  his  dagger  sharp,  and  took  it 
in  his  hand,  and  placed  himself  behind  the  door  of  the  stable 
to  kill  his  younger  brother  on  his  return  at  evening  to  bring  his 
cattle  to  the  stable. 

When  the  sun  was  set,  the  younger  brother  loaded  himself 
with  the  herbs  of  the  field  and  came  home.  And  when  the 
first  cow  entered  the  stable  she  said  to  him,  ‘Verily  thy  elder 
brother  is  standing  before  thee  with  his  dagger  to  slay  thee. 
Betake  thyself  from  before  him.’  The  second  beast  spake 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE.  II7 

after  the  same  manner,  and  when  he  looked  he  saw  the  two 
feet  of  his  elder  brother  who  was  standing  behind  the  door  ; 
and  placing  his  burden  upon  the  ground  he  fled.  In  his  flight 
the  young  man  prayed  to  the  Sun-god,  who  straightway  caused 
the  two  brothers  to  be  divided  by  a river  full  of  crocodiles,  and 
each  brother  stood  upon  an  opposite  bank.  At  daybreak  the 
younger  brother  declared  his  innocence,  and  told  his  brother 
the  true  story  ; he  then  mutilated  himself,  and  declared  his 
intention  of  going  to  the  Cedar  mountains.  But  before  going 
the  younger  tells  the  elder  brother  what  will  happen  in  the 
following  words  : ‘ I shall  take  my  heart,  and  place  it  in  the 
top  of  the  flower  of  the  Cedar,  and  when  the  Cedar  is  cut  down 
it  will  fall  to  the  ground.  Thou  shalt  come  to  seek  it.  If 
thou  art  seven  years  in  the  search  of  it,  let  not  thy  heart  be 
depressed,  and  when  thou  hast  found  it  thou  shalt  place  it  in 
a cup  of  cold  water.  Oh  ! then  I shall  live  (once  more),  and 
fling  back  a reply  to  an  attack.  And  this  thou  shalt  learn, 
namely,  that  the  things  have  happened  to  me.  When  thou 
shalt  take  a jug  of  beer  into  thy  hand  and  it  turns  to  froth, 
then  delay  not ; for  to  thee  of  a certainty  is  the  issue  coming  to 
pass.’  So  the  young  man  went  to  the  Cedar  mountain,  and 
the  elder  brother  went  home.  Arrived  there,  he  strews  dust 
upon  his  head,  kills  his  wife  and  throws  her  to  the  dogs,  and 
then  mourns  for  his  brother.  Meanwhile  the  younger  brother 
spent  his  time  in  hunting,  and  in  building  for  himself  a most 
beautiful  house.  And  it  fell  out  one  day  that  the  company  of 
the  gods  met  him,  and  one  of  them  asked  him  why  he  stayed 
there  alone,  seeing  that  his  brother’s  wife  had  been  slain.  Then 
they  pitied  him,  and  the  god  Chnum  made  him  a wife,  a most 
beautiful  woman,  in  whom  was  the  whole  godhead  ; but  the 
seven  Hathors  when  they  saw  her  declared  with  one  voice  that 


Il8  THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 

she  would  die  a violent  death.  Then  the  days  multiplied, 
and  they  lived  very  happily  together,  and  the  young  man  said 
to  her  before  he  went  out  hunting,  ‘ Do  not  go  out,  lest  the  Sea 
carry  thee  off,  for  my  heart  is  on  the  top  of  the  flower  of  the 
Cedar,  and  if  any  one  finds  it  I shall  be  overcome  by  him.’  So 
the  young  man  hunted  as  usual,  and  one  day  while  he  was 
away  the  Sea  saw  her  and  chased  her ; but  she  fled  and 
reached  her  house.  And  the  Sea  said  to  the  Cedar,  ‘ O that 
I could  seize  upon  her  ! ’ And  the  Cedar  carried  off  one  of 
her  fragrant  locks  and  carried  it  to  Egypt,  and  deposited  it 
where  the  washers  of  the  king  were.  Then  the  odour  of  this 
lock  diffused  itself  among  the  king’s  clothes,  and  one  day 
when  the  chief  of  the  washers  was  walking  by  the  sea,  he  saw 
the  lock  of  hair,  picked  it  up,  and  finding  the  odour  exceedingly 
delicious,  he  took  it  to  the  king.  When  the  doctors  and 
magicians  saw  it  they  said,  ‘This  lock  belongs  to  a daughter  of 
the  Sun-god  ; the  essence  of  the  whole  godhead  is  in  her.  Send 
envoys  to  every  place  to  seek  her,  but  send  a number  of  troops 
with  the  envoy  who  is  to  go  to  the  Cedar  mountain.’  This  was 
done,  and  after  a time  all  the  envoys  returned ; but  those  who 
had  gone  to  the  Cedar  mountain  returned  not ; for  the  young 
man  Bata  had  slain  them.  Then  the  king  sent  more  troops  to 
the  Cedar  mountain,  who  brought  back  Bata’s  wife  with  them, 
and  she  advised  the  king  to  cut  down  the  Cedar,  for  then  Bata 
would  be  destroyed.  So  the  Cedar  was  cut  down,  and  Bata 
fell  dead. 

The  following  day  the  elder  brother  Anpu  went  into  his 
house,  and  sat  down  to  drink  beer,  but  the  beer  in  the  jug 
became  froth ; and  when  he  saw  the  fulfilment  of  his  younger 
brother’s  prophecy  he  set  out  on  a journey  to  the  Cedar 
mountain.  When  he  came  there  he  found  his  brother  dead 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


119 


upon  the  floor,  and  went  out  forthwith  to  look  for  hi.s  brother’s 
heart  under  the  Cedar  where  he  used  to  lie  in  the  evening. 
For  three  years  he  searched  for  the  heart,  and,  quite  dis- 
heartened, he  determined  to  go  back  to  Egypt ; but  going  to 
take  a final  look  at  the  place,  he  found  a pod,  and  under  the 
pod  his  brother’s  heart.  He  took  the  heart  and  dropped  it 
into  water,  and  the  heart  absorbed  the  water.  When  all  the 
water  had  been  drunk  up,  Bata,  the  younger  brother,  became 
alive,  and  the  two  brothers  embraced  each  other.  Bata  said  to 
his  brother,  Anpu,  ‘ I am  going  to  become  a great  bull  with  all 
the  sacred  marks ; do  thou  sit  upon  my  back,  and  when  the  Sun 
rises  we  shall  be  in  the  place  where  my  wife  is.’  On  the 
following  day  Bata  became  a bull,  and  he  and  his  brother 
arrived  at  the  place  where  his  wife  was.  Then  the  king  made 
a great  festival  and  honoured  the  elder  brother  greatly.  After 
a while  the  bull  entered  the  sanctuary  and  stood  near  the 
princess,  and  said,  ‘ Look  upon  me,  I am  alive  indeed.’  The 
Princess  asked,  ‘ Who  art  thou  then  ? ’ He  answered,  ‘ I am 
Bata,  I am  a Bull.’  Then  she  was  horribly  afraid,  and  one 
day  when  the  king  sat  at  meat  with  her  she  said,  ‘ Come  swear 
to  me  by  God  that  you  will  grant  whatever  I ask.’  The  king 
promised,  and  she  asked  to  eat  the  liver  of  the  Bull.  Then 
the  king  was  sad,  but  all  the  same  he  gave  orders  to  slay  the  bull. 
As  they  were  killing  him,  two  drops  of  blood  fell  upon  the 
two  door-posts ; and  they  grew  up  into  two  mighty  Persea 
trees,  each  of  which  stood  alone.  After  some  time  the  King 
and  the  Princess  went  out  to  see  the  Persea  trees,  and  as 
the  latter  was  sitting  under  one  of  them,  it  said,  ‘ Ho  ! thou 
false  one  ! I am  Bata,  I am  living  still,  I have  transformed 
myself.’  At  this  the  Princess  asked  to  have  the  Persea 
trees  cut  doAvn;  and  the  King  gave  orders  to  have  this 


120 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


done,  while  she  looked  on ; but  a splinter  fl.ew  into  her 
mouth.  And  after  a time  it  was  told  the  King,  ‘ There  is  born 
to  thee  a male  child.’  When  the  child  grew  up  he  was  made 
Prince  of  Ethiopia,  and  afterwards  hereditary  prince  ; and  when 
the  King  died  he  summoned  all  the  princes  and  nobles  of 
his  majesty  and  narrated  all  that  had  happened  to  him.  His 
wife  also  was  brought  to  him,  and  he  had  a reckoning  with  her 
in  presence  of  them,  and  they  spoke  their  speech.  Then  he 
appointed  his  elder  brother  Anpu  to  be  hereditary  prince,  and 
he  himself  became  king.  And  when  he  had  completed  thirty 
years  of  life,  his  elder  brother  arose  in  his  place,  on  the  day  of 
his  death. 

Such  is  the  brief  account  of  the  Tale  of  the  Two 
Brothers.  Another  curious  story  is  that  of  the  Possessed 
Princess  of  Bakhten.^  It  appears  that  when  Rameses  XII. 
was  in  Mesopotamia  registering  the  annual  tributes  of 
vassal  princes,  the  chief  of  the  land  of  Bakhten,  in 
laying  his  gifts  at  the  feet  of  the  monarch,  placed  his 
eldest  daughter  first.  This  lady  was  very  beautiful,  and 
as  she  delighted  the  heart  of  his  Majesty  beyond  all 
things,  she  was  made  chief  royal  wife,  and  called  Ra- 
neferu,  or  ‘ the  glories  of  the  Sun-god.’  One  day  after 
the  king  had  returned,  and  was  in  Thebes,  there  came 
ambassadors  from  the  country  of  Bakhten,  who,  together 
with  the  chief  of  that  land,  brought  presents  for  the 
king’s  wife,  their  former  princess.  When  the  chief 
obtained  an  audience  of  his  Majesty  Rameses,  he  said, 
‘ Glory,  to  thee,  sun  of  the  Nine  bow  barbarians,  let  us  live 

’ For  full  translation  by  Dr.  Birch,  see  ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  iv.  p.  53- 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


I2I 


before  thee.’  He  tlien  went  on  to  tell  the  king  that  he 
had  come  on  account  of  Bent-Rash,  the  little  sister  of  Ra- 
neferu,  the  king’s  wife,  their  former  princess,  for  she  had 
become  stricken  with  some  evil  movement  in  her  limbs, 
therefore  would  his  Majesty  send  someone  to  heal  her. 
Rameses  ordered  all  those  learned  in  mysteries  to 
appear  before  him,  and  when  they  had  come  his  choice 
fell  upon  the  royal  scribe  Tahuti-em-heb,  who  was 
intelligent  in  heart  and  skilled  with  his  fingers.  This 
learned  man  went  to  Bakhten,  and  when  he  had 
examined  the  girl  he  found  that  she  was  under  the 
influence  of  evil  spirits.  He  found  the  devils  difficult  to 
contend  with,  and  making  a report  to  this  effect  he 
wound  up  by  asking  that  a god  might  be  sent  to 
exorcise  the  demons.  When  the  king  received  the 
report  he  prostrated  himself  before  the  god  Chonsu  of 
the  double  name  in  Thebes,  and  entreating  his  help, 
prayed  that  the  good  god  would  consent  to  go  to 
Bakhten,  to  save  the  daughter  of  the  prince  of  that  land. 
The  god  was  gracious  and  expressed  his  readiness  to  go  ; 
then  the  king  forthwith  placed  him  in  an  ark,  and  the 
god  departed  from  the  land.  When  he  arrived  in 
Bakhten,  the  whole  army,  headed  by  the  chief  of  the 
land,  made  obeisance  before  him.  The  god  then  went 
to  the  place  where  the  child  possessed  of  devils  was,  and 
cured  her  immediately ; and  the  spirit  which  came  out 
from  her  spake  to  Chonsu,  ‘ Thou,  O great  god,  and 
driver  away  of  possessors,  hast  come  in  peace  ; the  land 
of  Bakhten  is  thy  city;  its  men  are  thy  slaves;  I am  thy 


I 23 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


slave ; I will  go  to  the  place  whence  I came,  to  give 
peace  to  thy  heart  on  account  of  thy  journey  here,’ 
After  this  speech  the  god  requested  that  the  Prince  of 
Bakhten  would  offer  sacrifice  to  the  spirit  that  had  come 
forth  from  his  daughter.  When  this  was  done  the  spirit 
departed,  as  he  had  said.  At  this  the  Prince  of  Bakhten 
was  so  pleased  with  the  god  Chonsu  that  he  determined 
to  keep  him  there.  The  god  stayed  in  Bakhten  three 
years  and  a few  months  ; but  one  night  when  the  Prince 
was  lying  on  his  couch  he  saw  the  god  in  the  form  of  a 
golden  hawk  come  out  of  his  shrine  and  fly  away  to  the 
land  of  Egypt.  After  this  the  Prince  sent  the  ark  of  the 
god  away  to  Egypt  with  great  and  rich  presents,  troops 
and  many  horsemen. 

The  literature  of  Egypt  embraced  all  subjects,  if  we 
may  judge  by  what  has  come  down  to  us : mathematics, 
police  reports — like  that  which  relates  the  criminal 
proceedings  against  some  people  who  broke  open  and 
robbed  some  of  the  tombs  of  the  kings — moral  sayings, 
and  many  other  subjects  for  which  we  have  no  room  to 
give  specimens  here.  We  reserve  a notice  of  the  Book 
of  the  Dead  for  the  ninth  chapter,  and  will  conclude  our 
series  of  extracts  from  Egyptian  literature  by  two  most 
interesting  poetical  specimens.  The  first  is  from  a very 
old  work  on  the  praise  of  learning,'  and  the  second  is 
the  ‘ Song  of  the  Harper.’^  This  latter  work  is  inscribed 
upon  a tomb  at  Abd-el-Gurnah,  and  the  reader  will  see 

* ‘ Records  of  the  Past,’  viii.  p.  147. 

Ibid.,  vi.  p.  127. 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


123 


that  many  of  the  passages  in  it  are  somewhat  similar  in 
meaning  to  verses  in  Ecclesiastes  and  other  parts  of  the 
Bible : — 

I. 

I have  seen  violence,  I have  seen  violence,  give  thy  heart  after 
letters. 

I have  seen  one  free  from  labours,  consider  there  is  not  anything 
beyond  letters. 

l .ove  letters  as  thy  mother,  I make  its  beauty  go  in  thy  face, 
it  is  a greater  possession  than  all  honours. 

He  who  has  commenced  to  avail  himself  is  from  his  infancy  a 
counsellor. 

He  is  sent  to  perform  commissions. 

He  who  does  not  go,  is  in  sackcloth. 

I have  not  seen  a blacksmith  on  a commission,  a founder  who 
goes  on  an  embassy. 

I have  seen  the  blacksmith  at  his  work  at  the  mouth  of  the 
furnace. 

His  fingers  like  things  of  crocodiles,  he  stinks  worse  than  the 
eggs  of  fishes.^ 

Every  carpenter  carrying  tools,  is  he  more  at  rest  than  the 
labourers  ? 

His  fields  are  of  wood,  his  tools  of  metal ; at  night  when  he  is  free 
he  does  in  addition  work  with  his  hands  for  the  lighting  of 
his  house.’* 

' Compare,  ‘The  smith  also  sitting  byEhe  anvil,  and  considering  the 
ironwork,  the  vapour  of  the  fire  wasteth  his  flesh,  and  he  fighteth  with  the 
heat  of  the  furnace  ; the  noise  of  the  hammer  and  anvil  is  ever  in  his  ears, 
and  his  eyes  look  still  upon  the  pattern  of  the  thing  that  he  maketh  ; he 
setteth  his  mind  to  finish  his  work,  and  watcheth  to  polish  it  perfectly  ’ 
( Ecclesiasticus  xxxviii.  28). 

“ Compare  Ecclesiasticus  xxxviii.  27. 


124 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


The  poet  then  proceeds  to  describe  the  difficulties  of 
each  trade,  and  finishes  with  : — 

I tell  you  the  fisherman  suffers  more  than  any  employment. 
Consider,  is  he  not  toiling  on  the  river  ? he  is  mixed  up  with 
the  crocodiles. 

Should  the  clumps  of  papyrus  diminish,  then  he  is  crying  out 
for  help. 

If  he  has  not  been  told  that  a crocodile  is  (not)  there, 

'I'errors  blind  him. 

Consider,  there  is  not  an  employment  destitute  of  superior 
ones. 

Except  the  scribe,  who  is  the  first.  For  he  who  knows  letters, 
he  then  is  better  than  thee. 

Should’st  thou  walk  after  great  men,  thou  art  to  proceed  with 
good  knowledge. 

Do  not  say  proud  words.  Be  sealed  in  thyself  alone. 

II. 

The  Song  of  the  Harper. 

[Chanted  by  the  singer  to  the  harp  who  is  in  the  Chapel  of 
the  Osirian,  the  Patriarch  of  Amen,  the  blessed  Neferhotep.] 
He  says  : 

The  great  one  is  truly  at  rest,' 
the  good  charge  is  fulfilled. “ 

Men  pass  away  since  the  time  of  Ra, 
and  the  youths  come  in  their  stead.^ 

Like  as  Ra  reappears  every  morning, 
and  Turn  sets  in  the  horizon, 

' Job  iii.  17.  ^2  Tim.  iv.  7.  ® Eccles.  i.  4. 


EGYPTIAN  LITERATURE. 


125 


men  are  begetting, 

and  women  are  conceiving. 

Every  nostril  inhaleth  once  the  breezes  of  dawn, 
but  all  born  of  women  go  down  to  their  places. 

Make  a good  day,  O holy  father  ! 

Let  odours  and  oils  stand  before  thy  nostril. 

Wreaths  of  lotus  are  on  the  arms  and  the  bosom  of  thy  sister, 
dwelling  in  thy  heart,  sitting  beside  thee. 

Let  song  and  music  be  before  thy  face, 
and  leave  behind  thee  all  evil  cares  ! 

Mind  thee  of  joy,  till  cometh  the  day  of  pilgrimage, 
when  we  draw  near  the  land  which  loveth  silence.^ 

Make  a good  day,  O blessed  Neferhotep, 
thou  Patriarch  perfect  and  pure  of  hands  ! 

He  finished  his  existence  .... 

Their  abodes  pass  away, 

and  their  place  is  not  ; 

they  are  as  they  had  never  been  born 

since  the  time  of  Ra. 

(They  in  the  shades)  are  sitting  on  the  bank  of  the  river, 
thy  soul  is  among  them,  drinking  its  sacred  water, 
following  thy  heart,  at  peace  .... 

Give  bread  to  him  whose  field  is  barren, 

thy  name  will  be  glorious  in  posterity  for  evermore ; 

they  will  look  upon  thee 

(The  priest  clad  in  the  skin)  of  a panther  will  pour  to  the 
ground 

and  bread  will  be  given  as  offerings  ; 

' Eccles.  iii.  13;  v.  18;  viii.  15;  Is.  xxii.  13;  Wisdom  of  Solomon, 
chap.  ii. 


126 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


the  singing  women  .... 

Their  forms  are  standing  before  Ra, 
their  persons  are  protected  . 

Rannu  will  come  at  her  hour, 
and  Shu  will  calculate  his  day, 

thou  shalt  awake  ....  (woe  to  the  bad  one  !) 

He  shall  sit  miserable  in  the  heat  of  infernal  fires.* 

Make  a good  day,  O holy  father, 

Neferhotep,  pure  of  hands  ! 

No  works  of  buildings  in  Egypt  could  avail, 
his  resting-place  is  all  his  wealth  .... 

Let  me  return  to  know  what  remaineth  of  him  ! 

Not  the  least  moment  could  be  added  to  his  life, 

(when  he  went  to)  the  realm  of  eternity. 

Those  who  have  magazines  full  of  bread  to  spend, 
even  they  shall  encounter  the  hour  of  a last  end.^ 

The  moment  of  that  day  will  diminish  the  valour  of  the  rich. 
Mind  thee  of  the  day  when  thou  too  shalt  start  for  the  land, 
to  which  one  goeth  to  return  not  thence.'* 

Good  for  thee  then  will  have  been  (an  honest  life),^ 
therefore  be  just,  and  hate  transgressions, “ 
for  he  who  loveth  justice  (will  be  blessed). 

The  coward  and  the  bold,  neither  can  fly  (the  grave), 
the  friendless  and  proud  are  alike  . . .** 

Then  let  thy  bounty  give  abundantly  as  is  fit, 

(love)  truth,  and  Isis  shall  bless  the  good, 

(and  thou  shalt  attain  a happy)  old  age. 

’ Mark  ix.  44.  ^ Luke  xii.  18-21. 

^ The  Assyrians  also  called  Hades  ‘ the  land  of  no  return  and  it  w 
there  that  Ishtar  went  to  seek  Tammuz. 

Ls.  xxxvii.  37.  ® Amos  V.  15.  ®Jol>iii.  14-19. 


'v_^  • • 

y - , r?- 


\ 


Osiris.  Harpocrates.  Basht.  Mat.  Isis  and  Horus. 

GROUP  OF  EGYPIIAN  GODS.  FvO}}l  Ovt^lUdls  HI  t/lC  MllSCUDl, 


129 


CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Egyptian  Religion.^ 

The  number  of  gods  which  went  to  form  the  Egyptian 
Pantheon  is  at  once  surprising  and  confusing.  Every 
nome  possessed  its  god,  and  of  course  supported  a 
number  of  priests  to  carry  on  its  worship.  In  some 
places  triads  of  gods  existed  ; for  example,  at  Thebes 
the  triad  was  composed  of  Amen,  Mut,  and  Chonsu  ; 
and  at  Abydos,  of  Osiris,  Isis,  and  Horus..  Often  too 
we  meet  with  groups  of  nine  gods,  and  some  texts  in 
speaking  of  the  gods  repeat  the  sign  for  ‘ god  ’ eighteen 
times,  to  indicate  a double  group  of  nine,  or  the  entire 
company  of  the  greater  and  lesser  cycles  of  the  gods. 
Frequently  the  same  god  has  different  titles  in  different 
places ; and  the  god  of  a certain  town  has  generally  a 
title  given  to  him  which  shows  that  he  inhabits  that  town, 
or  is  lord  of  it.  The  names  of  one  god  are  at  times  very 
numerous,  for  example,  in  one  inscription  the  Sun-god  Ra 
is  addressed  under  seventy-two  different  names,  and  a 
whole  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  is  given  up  to  the 

* The  authorities  to  he  consulted  on  this  subject  are  Renouf,  ‘ Hibbert 
Lectures  Wilkinson,  ‘ Ancient  Egyptians,’  2nd  edition,  with  Dr.  Birch’s 
notes  ; Brugsch,  ‘ Religion  und  Mythologie  deralten  Aegypter,  Part  I.,  and 
Lanzone,  ‘ Dizionaris  di  Mitologia  Egizia,’  Turin,  i83i. 

I 


130 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


names  of  Osiris.  In  such  lists  we  often  find  one  god 
identified  with  another,  and  indeed  with  several  others ; 
so  then  it  is  at  once  evident  that  a large  number  of  the 
minor  deities  are  merely  forms  of  the  great  gods ; and 
the  same  statement  applies  even  to  the  great  gods  them- 
selves. For  example,  the  god  Ra  when  he  rose  in  the 
morning  was  called  Harmachis,  i.e.,  Har  on  the  horizon  ; 
at  mid-day  he  was  called  Ra,  and  in  the  evening  he  was 
Atum  or  T mu.  The  gods  were  supposed  to  eat  and  drink, 
and  to  have  every  attribute  of  man  physical  and  mental. 

The  Egyptian  word  for  god  was  7iu1ar,  which  word 
Renouf  considers  to  mean  ‘ power.’  It  has  been  ex- 
plained by  Brugsch  as  meaning  the  ‘ operative  power 
which  engenders  and  makes  things  in  a regular  recurrence, 
which  endows  them  with  new  life,  and  gives  back  to 
them  their  youthful  freshness.’  The  Egyptian  called 
every  god  nut  dr ; but  in  addition  to  this  he  seems  to 
have  had  an  idea  of  God  which  will  bear  some  comparison 
in  sublimity  with  our  own.  Eor  example,  let  us  take  an 
extract  from  a hymn  : — 

God  is  One  and  Alone,  and  there  is  none  other  with  Him.^ 
God  is  the  One,  the  One  who  has  made  all  things.'^ 

God  is  a Spirit,  a hidden  Spirit,  the  Spirit  of  Spirits,  the 
great  Spirit  of  Egypt,  the  divine  Spirit.^ 

God  is  from  the  beginning,  and  has  existed  from  the 
beginning.^ 

Compare — 

' Deut.  vi.  4 ; 2 Sam.  vii.  22;  Is.  xlv.  5,  21  ; Mai.  ii.  10  ; I Cor.  viii.  6 ; 
Eph.  iv.  6.  * John  i.  3 ; Col.  i.  16. 

John  iv.  24  ; Heb.  xii.  9.  ^ Gen.  i.  l ; Tohn  i.  l ; Col.  i.  17. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


131 

He  is  the  primeval  One,  and  existed  when  as  yet  nothing 
existed : He  existed  when  as  yet  there  was  nothing,  and 
whatever  is.  He  made  it  after  He  was.*  He  is  the  Father 
of  beginnings.*  God  is  Eternal,®  He  is  everlasting,  and 
without  end,  Perpetual,  Eternal  : He  has  endured  for 
endless  time,  and  will  exist  henceforward  for  ever.^ 

God  is  hidden,  and  no  one  hath  perceived  His  form,  no  one 
hath  fathomed  His  likeness,®  He  is  hidden  in  respect  of 
gods  and  men,  and'  is  a mystery  to  His  creatures.® 

God  is  the  Truth,*  He  lives  by  Truth,  He  lives  upon  Truth, 
Pie  is  the  King  of  Truth'. 

God  is  Life,  and  man  lives  through  Him  alone.* 

He  blows  the  breath  of  Life*  into  their  nostrils. 

God  is  Father*®  and  Mother;  the  Father  of  fathers,  and  the 
Mother  of  mothers. 

God  begets,**  but  he  is  not  begotten,  He  gives  birth  to,  but  is 
not  given  birth  to. 

He  begets  Himself,  and  gives  birth  to  Himself,  He  makes,** 
but  is  not  made.  He  is  the  Creator  of  His  own  form, 
and  the  Fashioner  of  His  body.  God  is  the  Creator 

Compare — 

* Rev.  iv.  II.  ^ Rev.  i.  8.  ® Deut.  xxxiii.  27  ; i Tim.  i.  17. 

■*  Ps.  X.  16  ; xc.  2 ; cii.  25-27  ; Jer.  x.  10. 

Ex.  xxxiii.  20  ; John  i.  18  ; I Tim.  vi.  16. 

® Job  XXX vii.  23. 

* Ps.  XXV.  10;  xxxi.  5;  Ivii.  3;  Ixxxix.  14;  xci.  4 ; c.  5;  cxlvi.  6; 
Jer.  X.  10;  John  xiv.  6. 

® Acts  xvii.  28. 

* Gen.  ii.  7 ; Job.  xii.  10  ; xxxiii.  4 ; Ps.  xxxiii.  6 ; Dan.  v.  23  ; Acts 
xvii.  25. 

'®  Deut.  xxxii.  6 ; Ps.  xxvii.  10 ; Ixviii.  5 ; Is.  ix.  6 ; Mai.  ii.  10. 

” Ps.  ii.  7 ; John  i.  14,  18  ; iii.  16,  18  ; compare  the  112th  Surah  of  the 
Koran.  Prov.  xvi.  4;  Is.  xlv.  12;  Jer.  xxvii.  5. 

I 2 


132 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


of  heaven  and  earth,  the  deep,  the  water,  and  the 
mountains.  God  stretches  out  the  heavens,  and  makes 
firm  the  earth  beneath.* 

That  which  emanates  from  (i.e.,  the  desire  of)  His  heart  is 
performed  immediately,  and  when  He  has  once  spoken, 
it  actually  comes  to  pass  and  endures  for  ever  and  ever.* 

God  is  the  father  of  the  gods,  and  the  progenitor  of  all 
deities.* 

God  is  compassionate  to  those  that  fear  Him*  and  hears 
those  who  cry  unto  Him.®  He  protects  the  weak 
against  the  strong.®  God  knows  those  who  know 
Him,'?  He  rewards  those  who  serve  Him,®  and  protects 
those  who  follow  Him.® 

In  these  sentences  we  see  at  once  that  the  Egyptians 
had  recognized  the  unity,  eternity,  and  infinity  of  the 
Deity,  as  well  as  His  loving-kindness.  Moreover,  in  the 
moral  maxims  laid  down  by  the  Egyptians  it  is  very 
evident  when  they  used  the  word  God,  they  referred  to  a 
being  with  such  attributes  as  have  been  stated  above. 
As  for  example  : — 

To  obey  is  to  love  God,  but  to  disobey  is  to  hate  Him.*® 
Compare — 

* Ps.  civ.  5 ; Prov.  viii.  28  ; Is.  xl.  12 ; xlii.  5 > Amos  iv.  13. 

^ Ps.  cxlviii.  5,  6. 

^ Deut.  X.  17  ; Ps.  Ixxxvi.  8;  cxxxv.  5. 

■*  Ex.  xxxiv.  6 ; Num.  xiv.  18  ; 2 Chron.  xiii.  9 ; Lam.  iii.  22  ; Rom.  ix.  15. 

® Num.  XX.  16  ; Ps.  xxxiv.  17. 

® Ps.  XXXV.  10  ; Prov.  xxii.  22,  23  ; Mai.  iii.  5. 

" Ps.  i.  6 ; Nah.  i.  7- 

® Ps.  Iviii.  II  ; Is.  xl.  10  ; Luke  xix.  12-27. 

® for  the  full  German  translation,  see  Brugsch,  ‘ Religion  und  Mythologie,’ 
p.  97.  *®  I Sam.  XV.  22,  23. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


133 


Let  not  thy  voice  become  loud  in  the  temple  of  God,  for 
such  things  He  abominates^ 

God  knows  the  wicked ; He  smites  the  wicked  even  to 
blood.2 

The  most  important  of  the  Egyptian  gods  were  : — 


Male. 

Amen-Ra 
Ptah  ...  ... 

Harmachis 

Ra  ■ 

Mentu  Ra 

Seb  ...  ... 

Osiris  ... 

Asar-hapi  or  Serapis  ... 
Horus  ... 

Harpocrates  ... 

Bes 

Anubis... 

Set 


Compare — 

* Eccles.  V.  I,  2,  6 ; Matt.  vi.  6,  7. 

^ Ps.  Iviii.  10;  cxxix.  4;  Prov.  iii.  33;  xiv.  ii. 


134 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


Thoth  ... 

Shu 

Chnum 

Chonsu 

Tmu 

Sebak  ... 


P'emale. 


Mut  

Se^et  ... 

Bast 

Neith  ... 

Nut  

Isis 

Athor  ... 
Nephthys 
Ta-ur  (Thoueris) 

Ma  

Hapi  (the  Nile) 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


135 


THE  GENII  OF  THE  DEAD, 


Amset ... 

- (11^  = 

Hapi  ... 

- 0^^ 

Tuaumutef 

Kebhsenuf 

- 

THE  ENEMY  OF  RA. 

Apap  ... 

* * * Q Q 

Ptah  was  the  chief  god,  and  was  called  the  ‘ lord  of 
truth.’  He  made  the  egg  from  which  the  sun  and  moon 
came  forth,  was  the  father  of  the  gods,  who  came  forth 
from  his  eye,  and  of  men,  who  came  forth  from  his  mouth. 
His  seat  was  Memphis,  and  he  is  represented  as  a 
mummy  holding  the  symbols  of  life,  stability  and  power, 


^ He  was  worshipped  at  Memphis  under  the  form 

of  Ptah-Socharis-Osiris,  and  under  this  form  he  was 
connected  with  Hades  and  the  dead. 

Sepulchral  figures  of  Ptah-Socharis-Osiris  are  found 
with  a box  attached  to  them,  to  hold  mummied 
objects.  The  animal  sacred  to  Ptah  was  the  Apis. 

After  Ptah  came  the  great  Sun-god  Ra.  He  was  the 
great  god  of  Heliopolis,  the  ‘city  of  the  sun  his  father 
was  Nu  or  the  sky,  across  which  he  sailed  in  a boat 
loi.  His  children  were  called  Shu  and  Tefnut ; 
and  he  waged  war  against  the  demon  of  darkness  called 
Apap.  In  the  morning  the  sun  was  called  Harmachis 


136 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


at  mid-day  Ra,  and  at  evening  Turn,  The  Sun- 


god  Ra  died  every  night,  but  created  himself  anew  each 
morning.  The  hawk  and  the  Mnevis  bulls  were  the 
animals  sacred  to  him. 

Osiris  was  the  eldest  child  of  Nut,  ‘the  heaven,’ and  Seb, 


‘ the  earth.’  Before  he  was  bom  he  married  his  sister 
Isis,  and  they  had  a son  called  Horus.  A brother  and 
another  sister  of  his,  Set  and  Nephthys,  also  married  each 
other.  Osiris  and  Isis  lived  together  very  happily ; but 
their  brother  Set  conspired  against  him,  and  at  a feast 
induced  him  to  go  into  a box  ; it  was  immediately  closed, 
carried  to  the  Nile,  thrown  in,  and  borne  away  by  the  river. 
Isis,  distracted  with  grief,  searched  everywhere  for  the 


Figure  of  Ptah-Socharis-Osiris,  and  Box  for  holding  Mummied  Object. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


139 


body  of  her  husband,  and  at  last  finding  it  she  hid  it, 
and  went  to  fetch  her  son  Horus,  to  help  her  to  avenge  his 
father.  When  out  hunting  one  day.  Set  found  the  body 
of  Osiris,  cut  it  in  pieces,  and  strewed  them  everywhere. 
The  faithful  Isis  hearing  this,  gathered  together  the 
fragments  and  buried  them ; and  then  she  built  a 
sepulchre  over  each,  Osiris,  however,  still  lived,  and 
was  king  of  the  infernal  regions.  Now,  the  meaning  of 
the  story  is  this  : Osiris  and  Isis  are  the  offspring  of  the 
sky  and  the  earth.  Nut  and  Seb.  Seb  is  represented  as 


a goose  as  such,  laid  the  golden  egg,  the  sun, 

or  Osiris.  Isis  was  the  dawn,  and  Horus  her  son  by  Osiris 
was  the  sun  in  his  full  strength.  The  wicked  brother  and 

sister  that  conspired  against  Osiris  were  Set  the 

Darkness,  and  Nephthys  the  Sunset.  So  the  victory 
of  Set  over  Osiris  is  the  victory  of  night  over  day,  or 
of  darkness  over  light.  On  the  following  day  Horus, 
or  the  sun  in  his  strength,  would  arise  and  spread  light 
over  the  whole  world,  and  so  his  father  Osiris  would  be 
revenged  through  his  (Horus’)  victory  over  Set. 

Osiris  was  called  the  ‘ good  being,’  and  was  the  judge 
of  the  souls  of  the  dead.  In  religious  texts  the  deceased 
person  is  always  called  Osiris. 

Anubis,  the  god  of  the  dead,  was  the  son  of  Nephthys 
^md  Osiris.  He  is  called  the  ‘ Chief  of  the  mountain,’  i.e., 
of  the  western  hills  where  the  dead  were  buried. 
Anubis  is  represented  in  a picture  as  the  embalmer  of 


140 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


his  father  Osiris  ; and  a common  title  of  his  was  ‘ lord  of 
embalming.’ 

The  Egyptian  god  of  writing  and  presiding  deity  of 
libraries  was  called  Thoth,  or  in  Egyptian  Tahuti.  He 
was  the  inventor  of  the  arts,  sciences,  and  astronomy, 
and  he  is  usually  represented  ibis-headed.  He  was 
scribe  in  the  infernal  regions,  and  was  supposed  to  keep 


a record  of  the  actions  of  the  dead.  In  one  hand  he 
holds  a palette,  and  with  the  other  he  traces  with  a reed 
the  destiny  of  the  deceased.  He  also  represents  the 
moon  ; and  as  a lunar  god  he  wears  either  the  disk  of 
the  full  moon  or  the  horns  of  the  crescent  moon  upon 
his  head.  As  the  god  of  the  moon  he  measured  months, 
seasons,  and  years. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


I4I 

Tmu  was  another  form  of  the  Sun-god,  and  was  the 
setting  sun.  He  was  considered  to  be  the  creator  of  men 
and  things,  and  gave  the  ‘ cool  breeze  of  the  north  wind  ’ 
to  mankind. 

Nephthys  neb  het,  ‘the  lady  of  the  house,’  was  the 

wife  of  Set,  the  demon  who  fought  against  and 
conquered  Osiris.  She  is  represented  on  coffins  and 
other  sepulchral  objects  standing  or  kneeling  at  the 
bier  of  Osiris,  and  beating  her  head  for  grief  at  the 
death  of  her  husband  and  brother. 

Horus,  or  the  ‘ young  sun,’  was  the  son  of  Osiris  and 
the  god  who  waged  war  with  Set.  He  was  the  god 
called  ‘ avenger  of  his  father,’  and  his  battles  against 
darkness  are  the  favourite  theme  of  compositions  in  the 
later  days  of  the  Empire.  The  bird  sacred  to  Horus 
was  the  hawk. 

Mut,  a goddess  represented  by  a vulture,  was  one  of 
the  forms  of  the  feminine  creative  principle. 

Isis  was  the  wife  of  Osiris,  and  had  many  forms.  She 
gave  life  to  and  suckled  the  youthful  Horus : hence  a 
very  large  number  of  statues  of  this  goddess  represent 
her  seated  with  Horus  upon  her  knees  and  wearing  a 
disk  and  horns  upon  her  head. 

Hathor  or  Athor  is  supposed  to  be  a form  of  Isis. 
She  is  represented  at  times  as  a standing  figure  with  a 
cow’s  head,  upon  which  are  a disk  and  horns  ; in  her 

right  hand  she  carries  the  symbol  of  life  ■^,  and  in  her 

left  a sceptre  J.  At  other  times  she  is  depicted  as  a 


142 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


young  and  beautiful  woman,  with  a vulture’s  head  on 
her  forehead,  and  wearing  a disk  and  horns.  Her  name 


means  the  ‘house  of  Horus,’  for  it  was 


supposed  that  he  took  refuge  and  grew  up  under  the 
fostering  care  of  this  loving  and  protectful  goddess. 

Sekhet  and  Bast  were  the  deities  to  whom  the  cat  and 
lion  were  sacred.  They  are  represented  by  standing 
figures  having  the  head  of  a cat  or  lion,  and  wearing 
the  disk  of  the  sun  and  a uraeus  upon  their  head. 

The  god  Chnumis  was  a form  of  the  Sun-god.  He  is 
called  the  ‘ creator  of  mankind,’  and  is  represented  as 
having  made  man  out  of  clay  on  a potter’s  wheel.  He 
was  also  the  original  father  of  all  the  gods  ; and  when 
Osiris  had  been  hacked  to  pieces  by  Set,  he  it  was  who 
reconstructed  the  body. 

Amen-Ra,  together  with  Mut  and  Chonsu,  formed  the 
great  trinity  at  Thebes.  Amen-Ra  is  represented  as 
a man  coloured  blue,  wearing  two  long  feathers  on  his 
head,  while  in  one  hand  he  holds  the  symbol  of  life 
and  in  the  other  a sceptre.  The  word  Amen  means 
‘concealer,’  and  this  god  is  often  invoked  as  the 
‘concealer  of  his  name.’  He  was  a solar  deity,  and 
was  styled  ‘lord  of  the  thrones  of  the  earth;’  and  in 
him  the  attribute  of  every  other  deity  was  believed  to  be 
found. 

The  Egyptian  was  a firm  believer  in  immortality,  and 
it  is  not  an  uncommon  thing  to  find  the  title  '■living' 
given  to  the  deceased,  indicating  that  his  relatives 
considered  him  to  be  enjoying  everlasting  life. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


143 


During  the  festivals  the  gods  were  arrayed  in  sacred 
vestments,  the  colour  and  style  of  which  were  all 
prescribed  by  the  sacred  canons  on  this  subject.  The 
offerings  to  the  gods  consisted  of  incense,  wine,  oil, 
ointment,  flowers,  and  sacred  animals.  The  incense 
was  made  into  small  balls,  and  then  thrown  into  a 
censer  in  the  shape  of  a cup  with  a long  handle.  The 
sacrificing  of  sacred  animals  was  a most  important 
ceremony.  Plutarch  says  that  the  most  acceptable 
offering  to  the  god  was  a red  ox,  which  calls  to  mind 
the  command  to  ‘ bring  a red  heifer  without  spot, 
wherein  is  no  blemish,  and  upon  which  never  came 
yoke.’'  The  law  on  this  point  was  so  strict,  Plutarch 
says,  that  a single  black  or  white  hair  rendered  the 
beast  unfit  for  sacrifice.  With  the  Egyptians  the  heifer 
was  sacred;  and  it  is  most  probable  that  the  Jews 
remembered  this  when  they  asked  leave  of  Pharaoh  to 
go  a distance  of  three  days  in  the  wilderness  to  sacrifice 
to  their  God.  The  monuments,  however,  represent  white 
and  black  oxen  being  sacrificed  on  the  altars  of  the 
different  gods,  thereby  showing  that  a red  ox  was  not 
absolutely  necessary  for  propitiating  the  gods.  Among 
the  offerings  of  plants  the  onion  was  a very  favourite 
gift,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  as  great  a favourite  with 
the  Egyptians  as  it  was  with  the  Hebrews.  Ointment 
was  presented  in  jars  with  the  name  of  the  deity  for 
whom  the  ointment  was  intended  inscribed  upon  it. 
When  a king  laden  with  rich  booty  returned  from  an 


* Nuin.  xix.  2. 


144 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


expedition  into  foreign  countries,  the  sanctuaries  of  the 
gods  were  enriched  with  enormous  gifts  of  untold  value 
as  thanksgivings  for  the  victory.  In  the  great  Harris 
Papyrus  we  are  told  that  Rameses  III.  (among  other 
things)  gave  10,047  cattle  of  different  sorts,  73,800 
cakes,  2,396  jars  of  dry  dates,  4,339  waterfowl,  2,366 
jars  of  onions,  41,980  living  birds,  2,396  bottles  of 
grapes,  825,840  crystal  beads,  and  353,919  geese  to  the 
temples  of  his  land. 

The  priests  of  the  gods  formed  the  most  important 
caste  in  the  land  of  Egypt.  A certain  number  of  them 
were  always  by  the  side  of  the  king,  and  from  this  caste 
Pharaoh  always  chose  his  ministers  and  judges.  They 
offered  sacrifices,  and  by  their  great  knowledge  they  were 
considered  to  be  able  to  foresee  coming  events,  and  hence 
to  warn  the  king  of  the  failure  of  an  expedition,  or  to 
foretell  its  success.  Dr.  Birch  considers  the  following  to 
be  the  principal  orders  of  the  priests  : — ^ 


niitar  Jmi  prophet. 

nutar  iitf  divine  father. 

db  purifier. 

nutar  meri  ‘ god  beloved.’ 

fa  nutar  sentra  incense-bearer. 
ker  heb  prayer-reciter. 

hesi  bard  or  poet. 


^ Wilkinson’s  ‘ Ancient  Egyptians,’  i.  p.  169. 


Mummy  of  the  lady  Katebt,  a Musician  of  the  God  Amen,  from  Thebe'. 
Now  in  the  British  Museum. 


THE  EGYPTIAN  RELIGION. 


145 


Queens  and  women  of  high  rank  took  part  in  the 
worship  of  the  temples,  and  the  principal  dignities 

held  by  such  were ^ nutar  heint,  or  ‘divine  wife,’ 
ii2itar  tjiat,  ^ qema,  and 


aJii 


‘ sistrum-bearer.’ 

The  most  important  order  of  the  priests  was  that  of 
‘ prophet.’  They  were  the  authorities  on  every  point 
connected  w'ith  the  w'orship  of  the  gods  and  the  ritual 
of  the  temple.  The  priests  were  most  scrupulously 
clean  in  their  habits  and  dress,  and  w'e  are  told  that 
they  bathed  four  times  during  the  twenty-four  hours, 
and  shaved  the  whole  body  every  three  days.  Their 
food  w'as  sufficient,  but  no  more,  and  the  utmost  care 
was  taken  by  them  that  nothing  forbidden  entered 
into  it.  They  used  wine  sparingly,  and  in  common 
with  the  Jews  they  hated  the  flesh  of  the  pig,  and  were 
accustomed  to  eat  mutton.  All  vegetables  were  not 
allow'ed  to  be  eaten,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
enjoyed  such  things  as  were  offered  to  the  gods.  In 
addition  to  their  strict  mode  of  life,  they  were  compelled 
to  study  much,  and  to  be  skilled  in  all  the  sciences 
known  in  Egypt  at  that  time.  Their  dress  was  usually 
made  of  linen,  and  very  simple.  The  chief  priest, 
however,  wore  a panther  skin  when  he  went  to  offer  up 
sacrifice,  or  to  take  part  in  the  different  processions  at 
a festival,  and  all  the  priests  put  on  adornments  during 
the  service  in  the  temples.  In  common  with  a large 


K 


146 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


number  of  the  people,  they  practised  the  rite  of 
circumcision,  and  this  was  considered  a distinctive  mark 
between  the  Egyptians  and  the  barbarians. 

The  power  of  the  priests  in  Egypt  must  have  been 
enormous,  for  not  only  did  they  belong  socially  to  the 
highest  caste  in  the  land,  but  by  their  knowledge  of 
profane  sciences  and  their  direction  of  the  ceremonies  and 
worship  of  the  gods,  whose  representatives  they  were,  they 
acquired  such  a power  and  hold  over  the  king  and  people, 
that  it  would  be  exceedingly  difficult  to  perform  anything 
of  national  importance  without  their  aid.  Moreover,  the 
right  understanding  of  the  beliefs  and  dogmas  of  the 
religion  of  the  land  wa's  locked  up  in  their  breasts,  and 
the  knowledge  of  the  mysteries  of  the  gods  was  their 
peculiar  propertv.  Little  by  little,  too,  everything  con- 
nected with  the  administration  of  the  land  fell  under 
the  directing  influence  of  their  authority.  They  took 
a very  prominent  part  in  the  processions  of  the  gods, 
and  a certain  number  of  them  carried  the  arks  of  their 
gods  in  the  festivals.  Festivals  were  very  frequent  in 
h2gypt,  and  the  mere  enumeration  of  the  most  important 
of  them  takes  up  several  lines  on  the  sepulchral  tablets. 

The  Egyptian’s  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
and  matters  of  a kindred  nature,  we  shall  consider  in 
the  chapter  relating  to  the  mummy. 


147 


CHAPTER  VII. 

The  Burial  of  the  Dead. 

The  most  casual  observer,  on  examining  the  Egyptian 
collection  of  any  of  our  European  museums,  will  be  at 
once  struck  with  surprise  on  seeing  how  large  a portion 
of  it  relates  to  the  sepulchre  and  funereal  rites  of  an 
Egyptian.  The  most  splendid  objects,  the  best  work- 
manship, and  the  costliest  things,  were  dedicated  to  the 
tomb  of  the  deceased  by  the  loving  relatives.  It  will 
be  readily  understood  that  all  tombs  were  not  equally 
beautiful,  for  then  as  now  the  magnificence  of  a funeral 
depended  upon  the  will  and  the  power  of  the  relatives 
to  pay  for  it  ; but  apparently  every  one  did  his  best  to 
make  the  tomb  of  his  friend  or  beloved  as  magnificent 
as  his  circumstances  permitted. 

The  making  of  tombs,  as  well  as  their  decoration, 
appears  to  have  been  carried  out  by  one  of  the  grades 
of  the  priests,  who  no  doubt  persuaded  those  who 
could  afford  it  to  indulge  in  a splendid  funeral,  for  this 
not  only  tended  to  their  own  magnificence,  but  to  their 
profit.  And  it  is  very  certain  that  only  the  wealthy 
could  afford  to  indulge  in  the  luxury  of  a tomb,  with  its 
chambers  and  costly  decorations  of  row's  of  hieroglyphs 
and  vignettes : also  the  cost  of  the  coffins  and  the 
process  of  mummifying  would  be  considerable.  The 


K 2 


148 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


tombs  themselves  belonged  to  the  priests,  who  appar- 
ently kept  several  in  readiness  for  the  family  of  the 
deceased  to  choose  from.  Inscriptions  and  chapters  of 
the  Book  of  the  Dead  and  other  sacred  books  were 
inscribed  also  upon  its  walls,  as  well  as  pictures  which 
represented  the  life  of  an  ordinary  mortal,  so  that  the 
series  would  apply  equally  well  to  the  life  of  any 


purchaser;  the  only  part  left  blank  in  the  text  being 
places  in  which  the  names  of  the  deceased  and  his  titles 
could  be  filled  in.  We  have  copies  of  the  Book  of  the 
Dead  in  which  the  name  of  the  deceased  is  wanting 
entirely,  the  reason  being  that  the  friends  of  the  dead 
man  went  in  a hurry  to  the  place  where  inscribed  papyri 
could  be  bought,  and  finding  one  ‘ ready  made  ’ which 
suited  their  purse,  they  buried  it  with  him,  not  taking 


THE  BURIAL  OF  THE  DEAD. 


149 


the  trouble  to  have  his  name  inserted  in  the  places 
where  it  should  be. 

The  friends  of  the  dead  of  all  classes  endeavoured  to 
bury  a copy  of  the  whole  or  part  of  the  Book  of  the 
Dead  with  their  beloved,  for  it  w'as  considered  of  the 
greatest  importance  that  the  deceased  in  his  journey 
and  wanderings  through  the  nether  w'orld  should  possess 
the  mystic  power  imparted  by  the  magic  words,  formulse, 
and  prayers  of  the  book,  which  was  supposed  to  be  of 
divine  origin,  having  been  written  by  no  less  a deity 
than  Thoth,  the  recorder  of  the  destinies  of  mankind. 
The  greatest  frauds  were  perpetrated  in  this  way,  for 
the  scribe,  knowing  that  in  all  probability  the  papyrus 
would  never  be  unrolled,  would  not  take  the  pains,  if  he 
were  lazy,  to  write  carefully  and  well,  or  if  he  vvere 
ignorant  would  make  hundreds  of  mistakes  ; while  if 
he  were  both  ignorant  and  lazy,  he  would  produce  such 
hopeless  confusion  in  an  inscription  that  not  even  the 
most  learned  scribe  or  prie.st  could  make  sense  of  it. 
Again,  if  the  scribe  were  ever  so  well  disposed,  but  had 
to  copy  fi'om  a hieratic  version,  and  did  not  undei'stand 
what  he  was  writing,  he  would  undoubtedly  make 
scoi'es  of  blunders. 

When  an  important  pei'son  needed  a tomb,  the 
purchase  was  usually  effected  by  means  of  a legal 
docum.ent ; but  if  a man  died  in  debt  the  tomb  was 
seized  by  the  ci'editoi's,  who  could  even  prevent  the 
deceased  Bom  being  buried  therein.  Diodorus  tells  us 
that  the  Egyptians  called  their  houses  hostelries,  on 


150 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


account  of  the  short  time  which  they  dwelt  in  them  ; 
but  they  called  the  tombs  ‘ eternal  dwelling-places.’ 
This  latter  statement  is  fully  borne  out  by  the 
inscriptions,  for  they  call  the  tomb  ‘ house  of  ever- 
lasting.’ ^ 

I'rom  investigations  made  by  Mariette  at  Sakkarah, 
it  appears  that  a tomb,  or  7nastaba,  of  the  ancients 
Empire  consisted  of  a chamber  or  series  of  chamber 
above  ground,  a narrower  chamber  or  corridor,  and 
a deep  pit  sunk  into  the  rock,  which  led  to  a vault 
for  holding  the  sarcophagus.  When  a visitor  entered 
the  chamber  and  looked  around,  he  saw  the  walls 
(frequently  covered  with  pictures),  and  a stele  facing  to 
the  east,  which  was  always  covered  with  a hieroglyphic 
inscription.  This  chamber  was  always  found  without  a 
door,  and  the  stele  with  the  inscription  appears  to  have 
been  the  most  important  part  of  the  chamber ; while  in 
the  corridor  next  to  the  chamber  were  placed  images  or 
statues  of  the  deceased.  Often  this  part  of  the  tomb 
had  no  communication  whatever  with  the  other  parts  of 
it,  for  it  was  walled  up  entirely  and  for  ever : at  other 
times  a small  square  opening  was  made  in  it,  in  order  to 
allow  the  perfume  of  the  incense  offered  in  the  other 
chamber  to  come  in  to  the  statues.  The  pit  or  well  was 
square,  and  varied  in  depth  from  40  to  80  feet ; there 
was  neither  staircase  nor  ladder  leading  from  the  upper 
part  of  the  tomb  to  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  and  unless 


I 


, pa  et. 


THE  BURIAL  OF  THE  DEAD.  151 

provided  with  a rope  ladder,  it  was  impossible  for  a 
visitor  to  descend.  Following  a narrow  passage  leading 
from  the  pit,  the  sarcophagus  chamber  was  reached,  in 
one  corner  of  which  stood  the  sarcophagus  itself  How 
difficult  it  was  to  break  into  a tomb  to  do  harm  to  the 
mummy  is  at  once  seen,  since  it  would  be  necessary  to 
obtain  entrance  to  the  chamber  or  chapel,  to  break- 
through the  partition  wall  separating  the  chamber  from 
the  corridor,  and  to  find  means  of  descent  into  the  pit 
itself 

Let  us  go  back  again  to  the  first  chamber. 
"Within  the  chamber,  and  over  the  door  of  the  tomb, 
the  same  inscription  was  carved,  which  prayed  : ‘ May 
Anubis,  who  dwells  within  the  divine  house,  grant  a 
royal  oblation.  May  sepulture  be  granted  in  the  nether 
world,  in  the  land  of  the  divine  Menti,  the  ancient,  the 
good,  the  great,  to  him  the  departed)  who  is  faithful 
to  the  great  god.  May  he  advance  upon  the  blissful 
paths  upon  which  those  advance  who  are  faithful  to 
the  great  god.  May  the  funereal  oblations  be  paid  to 
him  at  the  beginning  of  the  year,  on  the  feast  of 
Tehuti,  on  the  first  day  of  the  year,  on  the  feast  of 
Uaka,  on  the  feasts  of  the  Great  and  of  the  Small 
Heat,  on  the  apparition  of  Sechem  at  the  feast  of 
Uaka,  at  the  feasts  of  each  month,  and  the  half-month, 
and  every  day.’  ^ Other  prayers  ask  that  the  god  will 
ensure  the  gift  of  funereal  offerings  to  the  deceased, 

‘ Renouf,  ‘ Hibbert  Lectures,’  p.  131  ; ‘ Revue  Archeologique,’  p.  82, 
vol.  xix.,  1869. 


152 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILfL 


and  that  he  will  cause  him  to  be  buried  after  a ‘happy 
old  age.’ 

But  the  tomb,  besides  serving  for  the  abode  of  the 
dead,  was  also  the  page  upon  which  the  biography  of 
its  builder  was  written.  The  rich  and  wealthy  Egyptian 
first  chose  out  his  place  of  sepulture,  and  when  all  its 
parts  were  built  under  his  own  superintendence,  he 
caused  the  principal  passages  of  his  life  to  be  drawn  in 
vivid  colours  upon  the  walls  of  the  upper  chamber.  He 
was  depicted  leading  a life  of  luxury,  he  hunted,  he 
fished,  he  made  expeditions,  he  was  surrounded  by  a 
large  retinue  of  servants,  and  nothing  of  importance  was 
omitted  from  these  illustrations  of  his  life.  At  times 
the  builder  did  not  live  to  finish  his  tomb,  hence 
Mariette  found  at  Sakkarah  a number  of  incomplete 
tombs  ; and  he  mentions  a curious  case  where  a tomb 
was  built  for  one  Ape-em-ankh,  but  in  the  corridor  two 
inscriptions  are  found  stating  that  he  gave  up  his  own 
tomb  to  his  wife  and  to  his  son,  who  died  very  young. 

But  how  were  the  poor  buried.?  Judging  from  the 
skeletons  which  remain,  they  were  simply  buried  in  the 
sand  to  the  depth  of  about  a yard  ; for  traces  of  neither 
coffins  nor  bandages  have  been  found.  In  the  latter 
days  of  the  Egyptian  empire,  stelae  which  were  erected 
by  the  friends  or  family  of  the  deceased  often  contain  a 
summary  of  his  life,  his  titles  and  various  offices,  his 
good  works,  and  he  is  made  to  speak  and  proclaim  his 
good  deeds.  The  following  translation  will  illustrate 
this  custom. 


THE  BURIAL  OF  THE  DEAD. 


153 


STELE  OF  NEXT-AMES. 

1.  Dated  the  ist  day  of  the month  of  the  spring 

of  the year  of  the  Majesty  of  Her  Ra,  the 

powerful  bull,  the  saffron  diademed,  the  lord  of  the  two 
crowns,  the  supremely  mighty,  the  destroyer  of  the 
Asiatics,  the  golden  hawk,  the  creator  of  the  two  earths  ; 

2.  king  of  the  north  and  south,  chief  of  the  nine  bows, 

Ra-xeperu-ari-mat,  son  of  the  Sun  of  his  belly,  lord  of 
diadems,  godly  father  Ai,  god,  ruler  of  Hast,  Osiris,  lord 
of  Abydos  beloved,  giving  life. 

3.  May south  and  north,  and  Anubis  upon  his 

hill  grant  to  me  glory  in  heaven,  power  upon  earth,  and 
triumph  in  xer-neter.'  May  they  grant  that  I go  in  and 
come  forth  from  my  tomb, 

4.  that  my  majesty  refresh  its  shade,  that  I drink  water  from 

my  own  cistern  every  day,  that  all  my  limbs  be  solid, 
that  the  Nile 

5.  give  me  bread  and  flowers  of  every  kind  at  the  season, 

that  I pass  over  the  length  of  my  land  every  day  without 
ceasing,  and  that  my  soul 

6.  may  light  upon  the  branches  of  the  trees  which  I have 

planted.  May  I refresh  my  face  beneath  my  sycamores, 
may  I eat  bread  of  their  giving, 

7.  may  I have  my  mouth  wherewith  I may  speak  like  the 

followers  of  Horus,  may  I come  forth  to  heaven,  may  I 
descend  to  earth,  may  I be  not  shut  out  upon 

8.  the  road,  may  there  not  be  done  to  me  what  my  ka 

execrates,  may  my  soul  never  be  captive,  may  I be  in 
the  midst  of  the  obedient,  among  the  faithful. 

' Or  Hades. 


54 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


9.  May  I plough  my  fields  in  Sexet-Aaru^  may  I attain  the 
‘ Field  of  Peace,’  may  one  come  out  to  me  with  jugs  of 
beer  and  cakes, 

10.  the  cakes  of  the  lords  of  eternity,  may  I receive  my  slice 

from  the  joint  upon  the  table  of  the  great  god;  I the 
ka  of  Next- Ames,  first  prophet  of  the  god  Ames. 

1 1.  He  says  : I have  done  the  behests  of  men  and  the  will  of 

the  gods,  wherefore  I have  given  bread  to  the  hungry, 
and  I have  satisfied  the  indigent.  I have  followed 

12.  the  god  in  his  temple,  my  mouth  hath  not  spoken 

in.solently  against  roy  superior  officers,  there  hath  been 
no  haughtiness  in  my  step,  but  I have  walked 
measuredly  {gradatim),  I have  performed  the  law 
beloved  by  the  king. 

13.  I understood  his  commands,  in  my  place  I watched  to 

e.xalt  his  will,  I rose  up  for  his  worship  every  day,  I 
gave  my  mind  to  what 

14.  he  said  without  ever  hesitating  at  what  he  determined 

with  reference  to  me,  I took  uprightness  and  fairness, 
I understood  the  things  about  which  I should  keep 
silence. 

15.  The  lord  my  king  refreshed  and  favoured  me  for  my  well 

doing,  he  saw  that  my  hands  were  vigorous  through  my 
heart,  he  advanced  my  seat  e.xceedingly,  he  placed  me 
in  the  council  chamber,  me, 

r6.  the  ka  of  Next-Ames,  triumphant,  the  superintendent  of 
the  prophets  of  the  lords  of  Apu.  Says  he : O ye 
living  upon  earth,  living  for  eternity,  enduring  for  ever, 
ye  priests 

17.  and  ministrants  of  Osiris,  everyone  learned  in  divine 
traditions ; when  ye  enter  my  sepulchre  and  pass 


THE  BURIAL  OF  THE  DEAD. 


155 


through  it,  do  ye  utter  your  prayers  by  my  tablet  and 
do  ye  proclaim  my  name  without  cessation  in 

18.  the  presence  of  the  lords  of  law.  So  may  your  gods 

favour  you,  and  may  ye  transfer  your  dignities  to  your 
children  after  a full  old  age,  provided  that  ye  say, 

19.  ‘May  Osiris  grant  a royal  oblation  to  Next-Ames,  lord  of 

fidelity,  superintendent  of  works  in  the  temple  of  Ai, 
prince  and  first  prophet  of  Ames  and  Isis.  May  his 
memorial  abide  in  the  seat  of  eternity.’* 

* ‘Tran.s.  Sqc.  Bib.  Arch,’  vol.  viii.,  Part  III.,  p.  298. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


The  Mummy. 

The  ancient  Egyptians  are  the  only  people  known 
who  have  succeeded  in  bringing  the  art  of  embalming  or 
mummifying  to  perfection.  They  believed  that  the 


.Soul  with  Symbols  of  Lile  and  Breath  revisiting  Mummied  Body. 

soul  would  revisit  the  body  after  a number  of  years,  and 
therefore  it  was  absolutely  nece.ssary  that  the  body 
should  be  preserved,  if  its  owner  wishes  hve  for  ever 


THE  MUMiN^ 


with  the  gods.  This  ^ 
allusion  is  made  ' 

Egyptians  attri 

represented  as  J 

t 1 or  image,  ani 
to  him  in  his  sec 
to  whom  funere; 
moment  be  ima 
the  statues  of  ' 
which  was  supp 
that  was  the  obj 
attribute  peculiar 
one  place  we  are  tc 
and  fourteen  kaii  ( 
had  its  own  body,  ai 
and  to  drink. ^ The 
god  of  the  universe, 
doomed  to  undergo  a i 
at  a fit  state  of  purity 
counterpart. 

The  Greek  historians 
mummies  were  made, 
extracted  through  the  nos^ 

' The  whole  of  this  subject  is  exceeding 
referred  to  Mr.  Le  Page  Renoufs  article  on  the 
Arch.,’  vi.  p.  405  ; and  to  M.  Maspero’s  monograph  on  this  matter, 
for  a discussion  on  the  Soul  and  the  Shade,  see  Dr.  Birch’s  paper  in 
Soc.  Bib.  Arch.,’ viii.  pt.  III.  ; and  Mr.  W.  H.  Rylands,  F.S.A.,  has  ( 
many  scenes  from  the  monuments  illustrating  this  subject. 


ERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


' ’d  with  myrrh,  cassia, 
'♦;ron  for  seventy 
er,  the  body  was 
gummed  on  the 
In  the  second, 
troduced,  which 
jld  be  removed 
en  laid  in  natron, 
e flesh,  and  left 
',  the  body  was 
1 given  back  to 
cost  about  .£^250 
e the  third  would 

s shows  that  many 
ere  in  use  at  different 
Egyptians  possessed 
edicines  and  anatomy, 
out  of  the  body  were 
the  Amenti  or  Hades, 
lapi,  Tuaumutef,  and 
e dedicated  the  larger 
smaller  intestines,  to  the 
lOurth  the  liver.  These  were 
._n  had  covers  made  in  the  shape 
,,  a jackal,  and  hawk  respectively, 
jars  were  placed  in  the  tomb  with  the  sarcophagus, 
in  the  pictures  which  are  painted  on  the  outside  of 
nmies,  these  are  often  seen  standing  beneath  the  bier. 


THE  BOOK  ON  THE  DEAD. 


177 


In  the  early  part  of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty-fifth 
chapter  the  deceased  says  : — 

Hail,  ye  Gods  who  are  in  the  Hall  of  Truth  without  any 
deceit  in  your  bodies,  living  off  the  dead  in  Heliopolis,  devouring 
their  hearts  before  Horus  in  his  disk  ! Save  ye  me  from  the 
god  who  feeds  off  the  chief  vitals  on  the  day  of  the  great 
judgment.  Let  the  Osiris  go ; ye  know  he  is  without  fault, 
without  evil,  without  sin,  without  crimes.  Do  not  torture,  do 
not  anything  against  him.  He  lives  off  truth,  he  has  made  his 
delight  in  doing  what  men  say,  and  the  gods  wish.  The  god 
has  welcomed  him  as  he  has  wished.  He  has  given  food  to  the 
hungry,  drink  to  the  thirsty,  clothes  to  the  naked,  he  has  made 
a boat  for  me  to  go  by.  He  has  made  the  sacred  food  of  the 
Gods,  the  meals  of  the  Spirits.  Take  ye  them  to  him,  guard 
ye  them  for  him.  Therefore  do  not  accuse  him  before  the 
Lord  of  the  Mummies;  because  his  mouth  is  pure,  his  hands 
are  pure. 

Further  on  comes  a list  of  the  offences  which  the 
deceased  has  not  committed,  some  of  them  being 
identical  with  those  mentioned  above. 

If  the  deceased  succeeds  in  passing  this  ordeal  satis- 
factorily, he  comes  forth  at  once  as  a god  (there  is  no 
place  of  probation),  he  becomes  identified  with  Osiris,  in 
whose  shape  his  mummy  was  made,  and  he  roams  through 
the  fields  of  bliss  at  pleasure.  The  whole  family  of 
Osiris  then  do  for  him  as  they  have  done  for  the  god 
himself,  all  his  enemies  are  slain,  their  necks  and 
legs  are  broken,  and  they  are  annihilated  for  ever.  In 
future  nothing  can  do  him  harm,  and  if  all  the  legions 

M 


178 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


of  night  and  darkness  conspire  to  hurt  them,  their 
efforts  are  powerless,  for  he  is  a ‘ GREAT  GOD.’  When  the 
deceased  has  thus  triumphed,  his  soul,  his  ka,  and  his 
shadow  are  all  restored  to  him,  and  they  are  never 
more  to  be  separated. 

The  Egyptian  was  a fatalist,  he  believed  in  dreams, 
ghosts,  and  demoniacal  possession,  yet  his  high  moral 
ideal  as  exhibited  by  the  inscriptions  was  of  the  purest 
and  best ; and  when  we  compare  his  lofty  conceptions 
of  the  Deity  with  those  of  other  nations,  we  see  that  he 
stands  remarkably  alone.  Thousands  of  years  before 
Christ,  he  had  arrived  at  these  ideas,  and  it  will  be 
readily  imagined  that  such  a sensible  and  thoughtful 
man  was  not  so  utterly  ridiculous  in  his  religious  views 
as  he  has  been  made  to  appear.  Much  that  was  absurd, 
such  as  the  belief  in  magical  words,  charms,  and  names, 
had  crept  into  his  religion  ; but  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
believe  that  the  learned  priests  did  not  perceive  its 
futility,  even  though  they  did  not  oppose  it  actively. 
Still,  underneath  the  heap  of  rubbish  which  gathered 
round  their  religion,  there  lie  grains  of  truth  and  lofty 
morality  which  are  worth  picking  up  even  by  the  civilised 
nations  of  to-day. 


179 


CHAPTER  X. 

The  Life  of  the  Ancient  PIgyptians. 

The  ‘manners  and  customs’  of  the  ancient  Egyptians 
are  made  known  to  us  by  the  histories  of  Herodotus, 
Diodorus  Siculus  and  others,  and  by  the  pictures  on  the 
monuments  and  papyri^ 

When  a child  was  born  in  Egypt,  the  mother  made 
an  offering  to  the  local  divinity.  The  rearing  of  the 
child  of  poor  parents  cost  very  little,  for  their  food 
was  very  simple,  and  their  dress  scanty  and  cheap ; 
frequently  they  wore  nothing  at  all,  not  even  sandals. 
The  children  of  rich  or  well-to-do  parents  would  have 
an  abundance  of  toys  and  playthings,  and  would  be 
dressed  in  the  richest  stuffs.  The  toys  consisted  of  dolls, 
figures  of  animals,  and  the  like:  the  British  Museum 
possesses  several  specimens,  and  has  recently  acquired 
a curious  example  of  a toy  in  the  shape  of  a wooden 
cat  with  inlaid  glass  eyes,  and  a movable  lower  jaw 
well  lined  with  teeth.  The  mother  carried  her  child 
in  a shawl  tied  round  her.  The  children  were  educated 

' For  fuller  information  as  to  the  life  of  the  Egyptians,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  excellent  work  of  Sir  Gardner  Wilkinson,  ‘ The  Manners 
and  Customs  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians,’  2nd  edition. 


M 2 


i8o 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


according  to  their  station  and  their  future  position  in 
life.  They  were  kept  in  strict  subjection  by  their 
parents,  and  respect  to  old  age  was  particularly  in- 
culcated ; the  children  of  the  priests  were  educated  very 
thoroughly  in  writing  of  all  kinds,  hieroglyphic,  hieratic, 
and  demotic,  and  in  the  sciences  of  astronomy,  mathe- 
matics, etc.  The  Jewish  deliverer  Moses  was  educated 
after  the  manner  of  the  priests,  and  the  ‘ wisdom  of  the 
Egyptians’  became  a proverbial  expression  among  the 
outside  nations,  as  indicating  the  utmost  limit  of  human 
knowledge. 

Women  of  rank  wore  a skirt  made  of  rich  stuff 
fastened  at  the  waist,  and  over  their  shoulders  a large 
loose  robe,  which  was  tied  at  the  waist.  They  wore 
costly  head-dresses,  and  their  hair  was  usually  plaited. 
Long  hair  was  considered  beautiful,  and  packets  of  hair 
are  found  with  mummies,  showing  how  much  it  was 
prized.  In  the  later  days  of  the  empire  they  wore 
earrings,  generally  made  of  gold  ; and  the  custom  of 
wearing  rings  on  the  fingers  was  common  and  wide- 
spread. The  necklace  was  a very  favourite  ornament 
with  both  sexes,  and  the  reader  will  get  a very  good 
idea  of  its  varieties  by  a few  minutes’  study  of  those 
exhibited  in  the  first  Egyptian  room  of  the  British 
Museum.  Two  very  important  articles  of  an  Egyptian 
lady’s  toilet  were  the  kohl  pot,  and  the  ointment  vase.  The 
former  contained  a substance,  frequently  antimony, 
with  which  the  ladies  were  accustomed  to  paint  a black 
line  round  their  eyes,  to  make  them  appear  larger,  and 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  l8l 

SO  increase  their  beauty.  The  Bible  reader  will  not 
need  to  be  reminded  that  Jezebel  painted  her  eyes  when 
she  heard  that  Jehu  was  coming  to  Jezreel;^  and  this 
custom  is  referred  to  elsewhere  in  Scripture.^  The 
kohl  was  applied  to  the  eyes  by  means  of  a little  stick, 
thick  at  one  end  ; the  British  Museum  possesses  a large 
number  of  kohl  pots,  some  pierced  with  as  many  as 
five  holes,  in  which  the  various  unguents  of  an  Egyptian 
lady’s  toilet  were  kept.  The  Egyptian  lady  used  a 
copper  mirror,  very  highly  polished  ; the  handles  were 
of  different  shapes,  and  frequently  bore  the  name  of  the 
owner.  Baths  with  the  Egyptians,  as  with  the  Romans, 
were  considered  of  primary  importance. 

The  Egyptian  gentleman  wore  a kind  of  apron,  and  a 
sleeved  garment,  which  he  fastened  round  his  waist  with 
a girdle  or  sash  like  the  women.  The  dress  of  the 
priests  and  the  sacred  scribes  was  made  of  linen,  but  in 
other  respects  resembled  that  of  an  ordinary  gentleman. 
The  men  always  shaved,  but  locks  of  hair  were  left  on 
eertain  parts  of  the  heads  of  children.  The  dress  of  the 
king  was  most  gorgeous,  consisting  of  robes  of  the  most 
beautiful  stuffs  and  the  richest  ornaments.  His  head- 
dress was  a short  wig,  to  the  front  of  which  was  i ttached 
a serpent.  Both  sexes  wore  sandals,  made  of  a sort  ot 
wicker  work  or  leather  ; they  were  sometimes  carried 
by  attendants,  and  were  always  taken  off  in  the  presence 
of  the  king. 

The  monuments  give  us  no  information  about  the 

> 2 Kings  ix.  30.  " Jer.  iv.  30  ; Ezek.  xxiii.  40. 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


1 82 


marriage  ceremony,  but  it  appears  that  if  a man  married 
a second  wife  while  the  first  was  living,  he  was 
compelled  to  pay  a heavy  fine  to  the  first  wife,  and 
her  son  inherited  the  property.  Polygamy  was  certainly 
practised  by  some  of  the  nobles  and  kings  of  Egypt  ; 
but  as  a rule  the  monuments  give  us  the  idea  that  the 
Egyptians  were  very  affectionate  in  their  domestic 
relations,  and  so  the  peace  of  the  house  was  not  likely  to 
be  broken  by  the  introduction  of  a second  wife.  The 
kings  sometimes  married  foreigners,  for  Rameses  II.  took 
a daughter  of  the  prince  of  the  Khita  to  wife.  The 
Egyptian  priests,  like  the  Jewish,  were  allowed  to  have 
one  wife  only.  The  wife  was  reckoned  in  genealogies, 
and  a woman  was  not  forbidden  by  law  to  rule  over  the 
kingdom.  The  marriage  of  brother  and  sister  was  a 
custom  that  obtained,  and  the  Ptolemies  are  notorious 
examples  of  this  practice. 

The  king,  as  being  the  representative  of  the  god  Ra 
upon  earth,  was  the  highest  and  most  important  man  in 
Egypt.  It  was  necessary  that  he  should  be  a learned 
man,  a warrior,  and  able  to  rule.  He  bore  various  titles 
of  honour,  ‘son  of  the  Sun’  being  not  the  least  among 
them.  Royal  names  were  enclosed  in  a cartouche 


a 


and  each  king  had  a different  appellation, 


which  was  placed  before  the  family  name,  and  is  generally 
called  the  prenomen.  The  king  declared  war  and 
made  peace,  he  was  the  god  and  father  of  the  land,  he 
judged  cases  in  public,  and  in  war  he  led  the  army. 
He  took  part  in  the  processions  of  offerings  to  the  gods. 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  1 83 

and  was  priest  as  well  as  king ; he  made  offerings 
to  the  gods  personally,  entreating  them  to  give  him  a 
prosperous  and  happy  reign.  The  Egyptian  king,  like 
the  Jewish,  v/as  anointed,  and  his  double  crown  was 
supposed  to  be  given  him  by  his  favourite  deities.  In 
one  scene  Rameses  II.  is  being  crowned  by  Set,  above 
whose  head  is  written,  ‘ I set  up  thy  head-dress  on  thy 
head  like  thy  father  Amen-Ra  and  on  the  other  side 
of  the  king  stands  Thoth,  holding  a palm  branch 
plentifully  notched,  indicative  of  a long  number  of  years, 
while  above  him  is  written,  ‘I  give  thee  duration  of  life 
of  years  like  Tmu.’ 

The  dignity  of  king  was  hereditary,  but  queens  were 
allowed  to  rule  when  the  lawful  heir  was  too  young. 
The  first  object  of  the  king  was  supposed  to  be  the 
welfare  of  his  people,  both  temporal  and  spiritual. 
Minor  matters  of  administration  would  be  disposed  of 
by  his  subordinates,  but  things  of  importance  would 
come  before  him  and  be  discussed  with  his  leading 
advisers  and  councillors.  When  the  king  died,  or 
ascended  to  heaven,  as  the  Egyptians  would  say,  the 
son  of  the  Sun  was  dead,  and  hence  universal  mourning 
prevailed  in  the  land.  The  temple  services  ceased,  the 
whole  of  the  business  arrangements  of  the  towns  were 
unhinged,  and  a general  fast  was  observed  ; and  just  as 
the  king  during  life  surpa.ssed  every  one  else  by  his 
glory,  so  in  death  the  beauty  of  his  funeral  and  its 
appointments  surpassed  that  of  all  others.  The  greatest 

‘ Wilkinson,  iii.  p.  361. 


1 84  the  dwellers  on  the  NILE, 

care  was  taken  of  the  mummies  of  the  great  kings,  and  the 
safest  spots  were  chosen  in  the  mountains  and  elsewhere 
for  their  places  of  burial.  The  mummy  was  taken  by  a 
procession  which  crossed  the  river  in  boats,  and  then 
wended  its  way  to  the  west  of  Thebes,  Memphis,  or 
wherever  the  tombs  were.  It  was  then  lifted  from  the 
bier,  and  placed  upright  in  the  tomb,,  and  ceremonies 
were  performed  before  it  by  the  priest  or  priests.  The 
great  cemetery,  or  ‘ land  of  life  ’ as  the  Egyptians  called 
it,  was  at  Memphis,  where  the  remains  of  thousands 
upon  thousands  of  people  have  been  found,  for  it  was 
the  burial-place  of  that  region  for  thousands  of  years. 

The  Egyptians  lived  in  houses  which  consi.sted  gener- 
ally of  two  stories,  built  for  the  most  part  of  unbaked 
brick ; they  built  them  side  by  side,  and  so  formed 
streets.  The  houses  of  the  wealthy  covered  a very  large 
extent  of  ground,  and  appear  to  have  been  provided  with 
a courtyard  in  the  centre,  and  rows  of  trees.  Of  a small 
house  a good  idea  may  be  got  from  the  model  which  is 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum.  There  are  three  small 
rooms  in  it  on  the  ground  floor,  and  a flight  of  steps  leads 
through  a gallery  to  a rectangular  doorless  upper 
chamber,  in  which  is  seated  the  figure  of  a man : in 
the  courtyard  is  the  figure  of  a woman  kneading  dough 
at  a table.  The  doors,  opening  inwards,  swung  on  pins 
in  sockets,  and  were  fastened  by  bolts  or  bars  as  well  as 
by  locks  and  keys,  though  these  latter  only  appear  in 
the  last  days  of  the  empire.  The  floors  were  made  of 
stone  or  clay,  and  Wilkinson  thought  that  the  roofs 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  1 85 


were  supported  by  rafters  of  the  date  tree  arranged 
close  together.*  The  tops  of  the  houses  were  frequently 
used  by  the  inhabitants  to  take  the  air  in  the  cool  of 
the  evening ; hence  we  may  decide  that  there  was  a 
railing  round  about  the  top  of  the  house,  to  prevent  a 
sleepy  or  dozing  person  from  falling  off.  It  will  be 
remembered  that  to  ‘ make  a battlement  for  thy  roof’*  is 
a positive  command  laid  down  by  Moses  in  the  Penta- 
teuch. 

In  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  the  walls  would  be 
beautifully  sculptured  and  decorated,  and  we  may 
conclude  that  the  same  art  which  rendered  their  tombs 
so  brilliant  with  colours  and  so  beautiful,  would  be  used 
to  make  the  interiors  of  their  houses  attractive  and 
pleasing ; and  their  furniture  was  of  the  richest  kind. 
From  the  monuments  we  gather  that  the  leading 
members  of  the  aristocracy  had  large  estates,  in  which 
their  mansions  stood,  and  upon  these  were  kept 
horses,  cattle,  poultry,  and  a large  number  of  servants. 
The  Egyptian  landlord  had  his  stewards,  who  kept  an 
account  of  the  revenues  of  his  lord  and  transacted  all 
his  business  affairs.  Parts  of  these  estates  were  laid  out 
^ as  gardens  with  pieces  of  ornamental  water  in  them,  and 
round  about  were  planted  rows  of  palm  trees  and  vines. 

The  principal  occupation  of  a great  part  of  the  people 
of  Egypt  was  agriculture;  this  being  the  case,  we  are 
not  surprised  to  find  that  all  its  operations  were  again 
carried  on  in  the  fields  of  Elysium  by  the  blessed  dead. 

‘ Wilkinson,  ‘ Ancient  Egypt,’  i.  p.  357.  * Deut.  xxii.  8. 


186 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


The  king  was  the  great  patron  of  agriculture,  and  the 
figures  deposited  with  the  dead  are  always  made  with 
a hoe  in  one  hand  and  a whip  in  the  other.  The 
growing  of  grain  made  Egypt  rich,  and  the  scarcity  of 
food  in  countries  where  agriculture  was  less  attended  to 
would  make  foreigners  flock  there  to  buy  corn  and 
bread.  We  have  already  seen  that  Amenemha  III. 
built  a huge  lake  with  sluices  and  canals  attached  in 
order  that  the  country  round  about  might  be  watered  ; 
and  the  strictest  attention  was  paid  to  the  rise  of 
the  Nile,  on  whose  inundation  the  hopes  of  a good 
year  were  centred.  Kilometers  were  established  at 
various  points,  and  people  were  told  off  to  watch  them, 
and  to  give  warning  if  the  inundation  was  likely  to  prove 
destructive,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  to  announce  a plenteous 
and  prosperous  season.  The  rising  of  the  Nile  began 
about  the  middle  of  June,  and  as  the  waters  rose  they 
turned  from  green  to  dark  red.  When  the  water  began 
to  go  back,  great  care  was  taken  to  prevent  it  from 
running  out  of  the  fields,  by  making  dykes  and 
embankments.  The  water  remaining  behind  was  in  a 
short  time  absorbed  into  the  fields,  and  its  fertilizing  mud 
was  ready  for  the  husbandman.  The  ground  was  then 
broken  up  with  plough  or  hoe,  the  seed  was  sprinkled  in, 
and  its  treading  in  performed  by  cattle  driven  there  for 
the  purpose.  If  the  height  of  the  inundation  was 
1 6 cubits,  it  was  well  for  Egypt  and  her  people;  but  if 
only  12,  a famine  was  the  result. 

The  Egyptian  kings  kept  a standing  army,  but  made 


THE  LIFE  OF  THE  ANCIENT  EGYPTIANS.  1 8/ 


use  of  mercenary  troops  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
troops  were  armed  with  bow,  spear,  shield,  dagger, 
knife,  axe,  sling,  and  sword.  They  wore  helmets  and 
coats  of  armour.  The  shield  was  frequently  covered 
with  leather  outside,  and  the  hand  grasped  it  by  means 
of  a thong.  The  army  was  divided  into  sections,  and 
each  section  had  its  own  standard  ; kings,  princes, 
generals,  and  nobles  drove  in  chariots. 

The  Egyptian  laws  were  strict,  but  had  been  made 
with  the  welfare  of  the  country  in  view.  The  punish- 
ment of  murder  was  death  ; adultery  and  treason  were 
punished  by  cutting  off  the  nose  of  the  offender,  and 
strangling  was  resorted  to  occasionally ; while  the 
punishment  of  theft  was  flogging. 

The  Egyptians  lived  upon  the  flesh  of  various  creatures, 
such  as  the  bull,  goat,  geese,  pigeons,  ducks,  as  well  as 
upon  cheese,  milk,  and  certain  vegetables  ; while  the  poor 
would  eat  the  lotus,  papyrus,  and  onion  freely.  At 
table  they  ate  with  their  hands  or  with  spoons.  Wine, 
drunk  out  of  a shallow  bowl,  was  a common  accompani- 
ment of  a meal,  and  was  partaken  of  by  both  sexes. 
The  vines  were  supported  on  a series  of  forked  sticks, 
and  were  sometimes  made  to  extend  the  whole  length  of 
one  side  of  the  garden.  The  monuments  show  that  there 
was  a pool  or  tank  of  water  near  the  vineyard,  that  apes 
or  monkeys  were  used  to  gather  the  grapes,  and  that 
the  juice  was  pressed  from  the  grapes  either  in  a bag 
or  in  a foot  press.  That  drunkenness  existed  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  one  of  the  tombs  in  Beni-Hassan  repre- 


i88 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


sents  a drunken  man  being  carried  home  from  a feast. 
There  is  another  drink  frequently  mentioned  on  the 
monuments,  and  that  is  beer,  made  from  the  red  barley. 
The  sepulchral  tablets  make  the  deceased  pray  that 
cakes  and  jugs  of  beer  may  be  brought  to  him  in  the 
nether  world  ; hence  we  may  gather  that  it  was  much 
esteemed  in  Egypt. 

The  Egyptians  were  passionately  fond  of  hunting,  and 
the  animals  hunted  were  the  hyaena,  the  gazelle,  the 
crocodile,  and  the  hippopotamus  ; the  first  two  were  either 
shot  with  bow  and  arrows,  or  noosed,  and  the  last  were 
speared.  Birds  were  caught  in  a trap  made  of  network,  or 
with  a fowling  stick  ; and  fish  were  caught  with  the  rod 
and  line  or  speared. 


CHAPTER  XI. 


Architecture  and  Art. 

In  architecture  the  Egyptians  have  made  to  them- 
selves a name  which  will  last  as  long  as  the  world 
endures.  The  pyramids,  which  belong  to  a period  of 
more  than  three  thousand  years  before  Christ,  are 
familiar  to  all,  and  they  were  justly  ranked  among  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  Closely  following  on  these 
wonderful  buildings  come  the  sternly  beautiful  temples  ; 
and  from  these  we  see  that  the  Egyptians  were  perfect 
masters  of  architectural  design  and  detail,  and  also  of 
the  knowledge  of  the  means  for  cutting,  polishing,  and 
hoisting  to  a great  height  immense  masses  of  granite 
weighing  many  hundreds  of  tons.  The  temples  of  the 
gods,  the  obelisks  recording  victories  and  glories 
achieved,  and  the  pyramid  tombs,  were  meet  objects 
on  which  to  display  their  science  of  building,  which 
every  succeeding  generation  has  admired,  and  vainly 
tried  to  imitate. 

The  principal  periods  of  Egyptian  architecture  and  art 
are  as  follows  ; — 

1.  Under  the  kings  of  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth 
dynasties  the  most  handsome  and  majestic  edifices 


190 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


were  built,  such  as  the  pyramids  and  mastabas,  or  tombs. 
The  former  we  have  referred  to  under  the  reigns  of  the 
kings  who  built  them,  and  the  latter  we  described  on 
page  150.  If  nothing  else  but  these  monuments 
remained  to  us  of  the  works  of  art  of  this  period,  we 
should  be  compelled  to  admit  that  the  Egyptians  of 
those  times  were  mighty  builders.  Biit  fortunately  we 
have  other  remains  of  the  work  of  the  people  of  those 
days,  in  the  shape  of  beautifully  executed  statues  ; from 
which  we  see  that  the  artist  not  only  meant  to  produce 
a statue  and  likeness,  but  succeeded  in  giving  to  its 
features  a true  likeness  of  the  man.  The  most  remark- 
able statues  of  this  class  are  those  of  Chephren^  the 
third  king  of  the  fourth  dynasty,  and  the  builder  of  the 
second  pyramid,  and  that  of  the  ‘ chief  of  the  village,’ 
which  are  preserved  in  the  Boulak  Museum  in  Egypt. 
In  these  statues  nature  has  been  copied  carefully 
and  accurately  ; and  spectators  who  are  accustomed 
to  the  sight  of  the  later  conventional  Egyptian  art,  are 
surprised  into  admiration  when  they  see  before  them 
figures  whose  features  are  evidently  ‘ speaking  likenesses  ’ 
of  the  inhabitants  of  the  Nile  valley  more  than 
five  thousand  years  ago.  With  the  death  of  the  last 
king  of  the  sixth  dynasty  this  remarkable  style  of  art 
drooped,  and  eventually  disappeared  ; a long  period  of 
artistic  inactivity  then  followed,  until  the  eleventh  or 
twelfth  dynasty,  when  Egyptian  art  burst  forth  into  a 
new  life. 

II.  The  most  remarkable  productions  of  the  second 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ART,  I9I 

period  of  Egyptian  architecture  and  art  are  the  obelisks 
of  Heliopolis,  upon  which  in  later  days  Joseph  must 
have  looked  ; and  the  rock  tombs  of  Beni-Hassan, 
scenes  from  which  are  described  on  page  64.  In 
these  tombs  windows  and  pillars  are  introduced,  and  the 
scenes  portrayed  on  the  walls  are  invaluable  for  the 
insight  they  give  us  into  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  Egyptians,  their  festivals,  and  their  manufacturing 
operations.  The  workmen  and  artists  of  this  period  did 
not  produce  such  life-like  works  as  those  of  the  earlier 
periods,  but  were  tied  down  by  a rigid  conventionality, 
which  destroyed  the  independence  and  freedom  of  their 
designs,  and  fettered  the  simple  grandeur  of  their  pro- 
ductions. Following  close  upon  this  revival  of  art 
under  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  dynasties,  came  a second 
period  of  oblivion,  caused  by  the  subjugation  of  Egypt 
by  the  Shepherd  Kings,  when  not  only  were  no  works  of 
art  or  important  edifices  built,  but  the  first  few  of  these 
rulers  are  thought  to  have  destroyed  the  beautiful 
monuments  of  the  kings  of  the  first  empire.  Egyptian 
art  did  not  absolutely  decline  under  these  rulers,  but  it 
seems  to  have  existed  in  a desultory  and  stagnant 
fashion  ; and,  as  we  should  expect,  to  these  rough,  and 
compared  to  the  Egyptian,  uncouth,  despots,  art  and 
architecture  were  of  secondary  importance. 

III.  The  third  period  begins  with  the  expulsion  of 
the  Hyksos  and  the  accession  of  Amasis,  the  first  king 
of  the  eighteenth  dynasty,  about  1700  B.C.  The  art 
of  this  period  culminated  under  Rameses  II.,  the 


192 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


oppressor  of  the  Israelites.  His  father,  Seti  I.,  had 
drawn  largely  upon  the  services  of  the  architects,  the 
artists  and  the  labourers,  in  order  to  design  and  build 
magnificent  and  mighty  temples,  and  to  cover  them 
with  scenes  and  inscriptions  commemorative  of  his 
battles  and  exploits.  Under  the  rule  of  Rameses  II, 
the  most  beautiful  artistic  works  were  executed  ; and 
the  oppressor  king,  with  the  assistance  of  myriads  of 
captives  and  legions  of  Egyptian.s,  erected  some  of  the 
largest  and  best-proportioned  edifices  which  the  world 
has  ever  seen.  After  the  reign  of  Rameses  II.  art  and 
architecture  again  declined,  and  but  little  good  work  was 
produced  until  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  about  666  B.C. 

IV.  Under  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty,  inaugurated  by 
Psammetichus  I.,  there  again  appeared  delicately 
wrought  buildings  and  elegant  works  of  art.  The 
Egyptian  architects  and  artists  went  so  far  in  their 
imitation  of  the  works  of  past  dynasties,  as  to 
reproduce  on  their  tombs  the  texts  Avhich  were 
inscribed  upon  the  tombs  of  the  fifth  and  sixth  dynasties, 
nearly  three  thousand  years  before. 

V.  The  fifth  and  last  stage  in  Egyptian  architecture 
and  art  is  that  which  flourished  under  the  Ptolemies. 
These  rulers  made  use  of  the  native  Egyptian  skill  in 
building  and  decorating  to  a wonderful  extent ; but  it  is 
easy  to  .see  that  the  artists  of  that  time  only  copied 
what  had  gone  before,  merely  keeping  up  the  traditional 
letter,  while  the  spirit  of  the  work  was  long  since  dead. 
The  knowledge  of  the  old  hieroglyphic  language  died 


ARCHITECTURE  AND  ART. 


193 


out  many  years  before  the  Ptolemies,  and  many  of  the 
characters  had  new  and  different  values  given  to  them 
under  their  rule.  Besides  this,  since  the  national 
characteristics  of  the  Egyptian  race,  their  religion,  and 
manners,  and  customs  had  been  all  changed  under  the 
new  rulers,  how  could  the  art  and  architecture  of  the 
old  and  middle  empires  survive  ? Changes  came  on 
swiftly  and  surely,  and  the  Egyptians  hastened  to 
welcome  and  adopt  the  wonderfully  beautiful  art  of  the 
Greeks. 

As  the  Egyptian  believed  that  his  soul  and  the  gods 
lived  for  ever,  his  first  care  was  that  his  tomb  and  his 
temples  should  be  everlasting.  Keeping  this  in  mind, 
he  built  them  carefully  and  well,  and  of  the  best 
materials  ; they  bear  upon  them  the  impress  of  edifices 
constructed  for  eternity,  and  not  for  time.  The  Egyptian 
delighted  in  forming  massive  buildings  and  colossi,  but 
he  was  also  able  to  build  light  and  elegant  buildings 
suitable  for  the  residences  of  his  Pharaohs.  He  under- 
stood the  use  of  the  arch,  he  was  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  importance  of  pillars  and  columns,  he  excelled 
in  working  the  hardest  stone,  he  built  everlasting 
structures,  and  he  remains  almost  without  equal  in  his 
skill  in  decorating  walls. 

And  finally,  the  Egyptian  was  an  expert  and  skilful 
manufacturer,  a wonderful  worker  in  gold  and  precious 
stones,  and  an  expert  weaver  in  linen  : he  was  a keen  and 
enterprising  trader,  and  apparently  exceedingly  ready  to 
take  advantage  of  the  foreign  merchant.  He  disliked 

N 


T94  the  dwellers  on  the  NILE. 

the  foreigner,  but  when  it  was  to  his  advantage  to 
tolerate  him,  he  did  so,  and  was  willing  to  accord  to 
him  due  honour  for  his  services,  as  in  the  parallel  cases 
of  Joseph  and  Saneha,  ‘the  child  of  the  sycamore.’  As 
a rule  he  was  obedient  to  authority,  and  under  good 
generals  fought  well  and  did  mighty  deeds.  He  was 
learned,  witty,  sarcastic,  and  devoted  to  the  arts  and 
.sciences,  good-tempered,  and  of  a light  and  happy  dis- 
position. He  was  self-sufficient,  inclined  to  be  despotic, 
and  it  was  not  a difficult  matter  to  corrupt  him  by  a 
luxurious  life,  of  which  in  the  days  of  the  greatness  and 
wealth  of  the  empire  he  was  exceedingly  fond.  From 
the  earliest  times  he  appears  to  have  had  a plurality  of 
gods,  and  he  was  both  religious  and  superstitious ; he 
had  an  exceedingly  high  moral  ideal,  and  a most 
sublime  conception  of  the  unity  of  the  great  God  and 
Creator  of  the  world.  In  short,  he  possessed  all  the 
virtues  and  lofty  and  great  ideas  which  were  attainable 
by  the  people  of  such  a civilized  nation  as  his  own  : he 
likewise  practised  all  the  vices  which  spring  up  under  the 
fostering  influence  of  luxury  and  wealth.  Though  the 
knowledge  of  the  Almighty  was  brought  face  to  face 
with  him,  he  refused  to  learn  of  Him,  and  accounted 
Him  as  one  of  his  own  gods;  therefore,  like  every 
nation  that  has  raised  its  hand  to  persecute  God’s  chosen 
people,  he  has  passed  away,  and  his  monuments  alone 
remain  to  tell  us  how  great  was  the  empire  of  the  ‘ Sons 
of  the  Sun  ’ in  the  valley  of  the  Nile. 


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p., 

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p-i 

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W 

w 

E 

H 

(/)  C }«  (/} 

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M rO  ^ 


ao  oo  oo  oo  oo  oo  ao  (JO  0 o o o o 00  g 


Epiphi  May  16  j June  25 


INDEX. 


Abesha,  arrival  of,  in  Egypt  66. 

Abraham,  career  of,  8o  ; goes  into 
Egypt,  8l  ; the  Pharaoh  who  re- 
ceived, 82. 

Agriculture,  Egyptian,  186. 

Ahmes,  defeats  .Shepherd  Kings,  68  ; 
reign  of,  68 ; a collar  of  gold  given 
to,  86. 

Ahmes-Nefertari,  wife  of  Amen-Ra, 
reign  ol,  69. 

Ai,  reign  of,  73. 

Akerblad,  efforts  of,  to  translate 
demotic,  28. 

Ainasis  II.,  reign  of,  98. 

Amen,  inscription  of,  at  Ileni-llas- 
san,  64. 

Ainenhotep  I.,  reign  of,  69. 

Ainenhotep  II.,  reign  of,  71. 

Ainenhotep  III.,  reign  of,  71  ; kills 
210  lions,  72  ; erects  statues  of 
Meinnon,  72  ; piety  of,  72. 

Anubis,  worship  of,  139. 

Ape-em-ankh,  tomb  of,  152. 

Apepi  II.,  reign  of,  68. 

Aperu,  conquest  of,  by  Thothmes 
III.  (supposed  to  be  Jews),  71. 

Apis,  sacred  to  Ptah,  135. 

Architecture,  first  period,  189  ; pyra- 
mids, 190;  statues  of  Chephren, 
190;  second  period,  190  ; obelisks, 
191  ; tombs,  191 ; in  time  of  Shep- 
herd Kings,  191  ; third  period, 
191  ; in  time  of  Raineses  II.,  192  ; 
fourth  and  fifth  periods,  192  ; 
character  of,  193. 

Army,  Egyptian,  186. 

Arts  of  Egyptians,  193. 

Asenath,  wife  of  Joseph,  meaning 
of  name,  87. 

Assurbanipal,  conquests  of,  97. 

Ata,  or  Ouenephes,  history  of,  55. 


Athothis,  son  of  Menes,  55. 

Autocraior,  mislran.slat.oii  of  word, 
17- 

Avaris,  battle  at,  68, 

Bakemcats,  Egyptian,  83. 

Baker,  Pharaoh  s,  dream  of,  83. 

Bakhten,  story  of  the  Possessed 
Princess  of,  1 20. 

Barbers,  Egyptian,  84  ; poem  00,85. 

Baskets,  Egyptian,  83. 

Bast,  worship  of,  144. 

Beer,  use  of,  188. 

Belzoni,  obelisk  found  by,  32. 

Birch,  Dr.,  translation  ol  inscription 
on  Rosetta  Stone  by,  22 ; on 
mistakes  in  translating  demotic, 
29  ; Mycerinus’  inscription  trans- 
lated by,  63  ; on  Joseph's  seven 
cows,  83  ; on  barbers,  85  ; re- 
ference of,  to  brickinakers,  76  ; 
on  magical  text,  1 14  ; on  orders  of 
priests,  144. 

Book  of  the  Dead,  uses  of,  148  ; 
description  and  age  of,  167  ; 
contents  of,  168  ; illustrations 
of,  168;  explanations  of,  172; 
transformations  of,  172  ; the 
negative  confession,  175  ; prayer 
in,  177. 

Bouriant,  Urbain,  translation  of  a 
stele  by,  22. 

Brickmaking,  Egyptian,  88, 

Butler,  Pharaoh’s,  dream  of,  83. 

‘ Calf,’  the  vessel  called,  68. 

Cainbyses  the  Persian  conquers 
Egypt,  98. 

Canaanites,  origin  of,  52. 

Cartonnages,  description  of,  161. 

Xaf-Ra,  or  Chephren,  reign  of,  61  ; 
pyramid  of,  61  ; sphinx  of,  61; 
statues  of,  190. 

Cartouches,  meaning  of,  18. 

N 2 


198 


INDEX. 


Chain  or  collar  of  gold,  gifts  of, 

Champollion,  M.,  decipherment  of 
hieroglyphics  by,  31. 

Childhood  of  Egyptians,  179  ; edu- 
cation of,  180. 

Chnumis,  worship  of,  142. 
xufu,  or  Cheops,  reign  of,  56,  58  ; 
pyramid  of,  56. 

Cleopatra,  hieroglyphic  name  of. 


. 33- 

Cleopatra’s  Needle,  made  by  Thoth- 
mes  III.,  71  ; Rameses  II. ’s  in- 
scription on,  79. 

Coffins,  description  of,  162. 

Colours  used  in  writing,  41. 

Cups,  Egyptian,  83. 

Cushites,  legend  of  origin  of,  53, 

Demotic  or  enchorial  inscription, 
efforts  to  translate,  28. 

Determinatives,  use  of,  44. 

Diet  of  Egyotians,  1S7. 

D’Orbiney  Papyrus,  the,  date  of, 
82. 


Dresses  of  women,  180;  of  men, 

181. 

Drunkenness  known  to  Pigyptians, 
187. 

Eclipse  during  reign  of  Necherophes, 

55- 

Education  of  children,  180. 

Egypt,  geography  of,  50  ; names  of, 
50  ; titles  of  kings  of,  50  ; origin  of 
])eople  of,  5 1 ; legendary  origin  of, 
52  ; historyof,  53  ; dynasties  of,  53, 
et seq.  ; civilization  of,  80  ; liability 
of,  to  famines,  81  ; conquered  by 
Cambyses,  98  ; literature  of,  99  ; 
religion  of,  1 29. 

Egyptians,  origin  of,  51  ; legend  of, 
concerning  Idarmachis,  52 ; ap- 
pearance of,  53  ; wars  of,  against 
Ethiopian.s,  66  ; mode  of  dressing 
the  hair,  84 ; learning  of,  93  ; 
literature  of,  99  ; poetry  of,  100  ; 
mode  of  writing  history,  107  ; 
hymns  of,  112  ; magical  texts  of, 

1 14;  tales  of,  115;  religion  of, 
129  ; belief  of,  in  immortality, 
142  ; worship  of,  143  ; priests. 


144  ; tombs  of,  147  ; burial  of, 
152;  belief  as  to  the  soul  after 
death,  156  ; embalming,  157  t 
dedication  of  intestines,  158  ; 
cartonnages,  161  ; description  of 
coffins,  162 ; sarcophagus,  162; 
uses  of  scarabsei,  163  ; uses  of 
ushabtiu,  164  ; beliefs  of,  178  ; 
childhood  of,  179  ; dress  of  wo 
men,  180  ; of  men,  181  ; poly- 
gamy of,  182;  affection  of,  182  ; 
marriage  of  brother  and  si.ster 
common,  182  ; position  of  the 
king,  182  ; houses  of,  184  ; occu- 
pations of,  185  ; army  of,  186  ; 
laws  of,  187  ; diet  of,  187  ; use  of 
wine,  187  ; cultivation  of  vines, 

187  ; drunkenness  of,  187  ; use 
of  beer,  188  ; fond  of  hunting, 

188  ; architecture  of,  189  ; arts 
of,  193  ; chararter  of,  193. 

Embalming,  modes  of,  157. 

Enchorial  and  demotic  inscrijitions, 
efforts  to  tran.slate,  28. 

Enna,  the  scribe  of  the  D’Orbiney 
Papyrus,  82. 

Esarhaddon,  conquests  of,  96. 

Ethiopians,  wars  of,  against  Pigyp- 
tians,  66,  74. 

Exodus,  the,  date  of,  88  ; route  of, 
94. 

Ezekiel,  fulfilment  of  prophecies 
of,  98. 

Gizeh,  pyramids  at,  56. 

God,  hymn  to,  130. 

Gods,  Egj'ptian,  number  of,  129; 
triads  of,  129;  names  of,  129; 
Egyptian  name  for,  130;  list  of 
male,  133  ; of  female,  134  ; genii 
of  the  dead,  135;  the  enemy  of 
Ra,  13s  ; Ptah,  135  ; Osiris, 
136;  Anubis,  Thoth,  140  ; Tmu, 
Nephthys,  Horns,  Mut,  Isis,  141  ; 
Hathor,  141  ; .Sekhet,  Bast,  Chnu- 
mis, Amen-Ra,  142;  worship  of, 
143  ; offerings  to,  143  ; place  of 
women  in  worship  of,  145. 

Greek  inscription  on  Rosetta  .Stone, 
translation  of,  22. 

Guignts,  Dr.,  on  hieroglyphics,  18. 


INDEX. 


199 


Hammer,  M.  von,  mistakes  of,  30. 
Har-em-hebi,  reign  of,  73. 

Harbor,  or  Herher,  reign  of,  95. 
Harmachis,  legend  of,  52. 

Harris  Papyrus,  list  of  offerings  in, 
144. 

Hatasu,  queen,  reign  of,  69  ; 
obelisks  of,  69. 

Hathor,  or  Athor,  worship  of,  141. 
Hawk,  sacred  to  Ra,  136. 

Heifer,  sacrifice  of,  143. 

Hieratic  writing,  specimen  of,  49. 

I lieroglyphics,  decipherment  of,  15; 
Kircher  on,  17  ; Dr.  Guignes  on, 
18;  discovery  of  Zoega,  18; 
meaning  of  cartouches,  18  ; dis- 
covery of  Boussard,  18  ; finding 
of  the  Rosetta  Stone,  18  ; inscrip- 
tions of,  21 ; translations  of  Greek, 
22  ; efforts  to  translate  demotic 
by  Sacy  and  Akerblad,  28  ; mis- 
takes in,  29 ; Chevalier  Palin, 

29  ; of  von  Hammer  and  Lenoir, 
30 ; labours  of  Thomas  Young, 

30  ; of  Champollion,  31  ; name  of 
Ptolemy,  32  ; of  Cleopatra,  33  ; 
objections  to  interpretation,  36  ; 
letter  of  Dr.  Lepsius,  36  ; theory 
of  Sir  G.  C.  Lewis,  37  ; ideal 
writing,  42  ; pictorial,  43  ; deter 
minatives,  44 ; number  of  signs, 

45  ; arrangement  of,  45  ; orna- 
mental use  of,  46  ; specimen  of, 

46  ; specimens  of  hieratic  and 
demotic,  49. 

Hor-em-heb,  sarcophagus  of,  162. 
Horus,  worship  of,  141. 

Houses,  description  of,  184. 
Hunting,  fondness  for,  188. 

Hyksos,  or  Shepherd  Kings,  reigns 
of,  67. 

Hymns  to  Ra,  112  ; to  God,  130. 
Ideal  writing,  42. 

Ink,  writing,  41. 

Intestines,  dedication  of,  158. 

Isis,  wife  of  Osiris,  141. 

Jacob,  arrival  of,  in  Egypt,  picture 
of  supposed,  65. 

Janelli,  on  ideographic  theory,  36. 
Jehoahaz  made  king,  97. 


Jehoiakim  made  king,  97. 

Jeremiah,  fulfilment  of  prophecies 
of,  98. 

Jews,  supposed  arrival  of,  in  Egypt, 

65- 

Jews  in  Egypt,  labour  of,  89. 
Jezebel,  painting  of,  181. 

Joseph  sold  into  Egypt,  82  ; in 
prison,  83  ; before  Pharaoh,  84  ; 
interpretations  of,  85  ; exaltation 
of,  86  ; meaning  of  Egyptian  name 
of,  86 ; wife  of,  87  ; wonderful 
policy  of,  87  ; story  of,  confirms 
accuracy  of  Bible,  87. 

Josiah,  death  of,  97. 

Ka,  belief  in,  157. 

Kadesh  on  the  Orontes,  battle  at, 
between  Khita  and  Rameses  1 1., 
77- 

Kem,  native  name  of  Egypt,  50. 
Khilibu  or  Khiribu,  king  of,  rescue 
of,  77. 

Khita  nation,  origin  of,  53. 

Khita,  or  Hittites,  wars  of,  against 
Rameses  IL,  74;  poem  about, 
too. 

Khnum-hetep,  tomb  of,  description, 

65- 

Kings,  position  of,  182  ; names  of, 
182  ; dignity  of,  183  ; death  of, 
183. 

Kircher  on  hieroglyphics,  17. 
Klaproth,  objection  of,  to  Champol- 
lion, 36. 

Kochome,  pyramids  at,  built  by  Ata, 

55- 

Kohl,  uses  of,  180. 

Kush,  appearance  of  inhabitants  of, 

52-  , 

Labyrinth,  description  of,  67. 

Laws,  Egyptian,  187. 

Learning,  poem  in  praise  of,  123. 
Lenoir,  mistake  of,  30. 

Lepsius,  Dr.,  letter  of,  to  Rosellini, 

36. 

Letronne,  supposition  of,  32. 

Lewis,  Sir  G.  C.,  theory  of,  as  to 
Egyptian  language,  37. 

Libyans,  legend  of  origin  of,  53  ; 

] terrified  by  an  eclipse,  55. 


200 


INDEX. 


Linen,  fine,  dress  of  priests,  85. 

Literature,  Egyptian,  description  of, 
99  ; poem  of  Pentaur,  100;  hymns 
to  the  Nile,  no;  to  Ra,  112; 
magical  text,  114;  Tale  of  the 
Two  Brothers,  115;  the  Pos- 
sessed Princess  of  Bakhten,  120; 
the  praise  of  learning,  123  ; the 
Song  of  the  Harper,  124. 

Lushington,  Professor,  translation 
of  Pentaur’s  poem,  100. 

Magical  text  translated  by  Dr. 
Birch,  1 14. 

Mariette  on  tombs,  150. 

Mastaba,  or  tomb,  description  of, 
150. 

IMat'in,  battle  of,  with  Amenemha, 
64. 

Megiddo,  battle  at,  97. 

Memphis,  founded  by  Mena,  54. 

Mena,  or  Menes,  date  of  reign  of, 
54  ; history  of,  54. 

Meydoum,  pyramid  of,  supposed 
sepulchre  of  Senefru,  55. 

Memnon,  statues  of,  72. 

Memnonium,  the,  built  by  Seti  I., 

73- 

Menkau-Ra,  or  Mycerinus,  reign  of, 
62  ; attempt  to  destroy  pyramid 
of,  62  ; mummy,  sarcophagus,  and 
coffin  of,  62. 

Menouthes,  chief  of  the,  rebellion 
of,  96. 

Mer-en-Ptah,  or  Meneptah,  the 
probable  Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus, 
79,  94- 

Mestem,  an  eye-paint,  66. 

Mirrors,  i8i. 

Misr,  Arabic  name  of  Egypt,  50. 

Misraim,  Hebrew  name  of  Egypt, 
SO. 

Mnevis,  bulls  sacred  to  Ra,  136. 

Moeris,  lake,  description  of,  67 ; 
uses  of,  81. 

Moses  in  the  ark,  93  ; learning  of, 

93- 

Mummies,  description  of,  157  ; 
animal,  164. 

Musur,  Assyrian  name  of  Egypt,  50  . 

Mut,  worship  of,  141. 


Nebuchadnezzar  IL,  conqueror  of 
. Egypt,  97. 

Necherophes,  or  Nefer-ka-Seker, 
eclipse  during  reign  of,  55. 
Ne;:^t-Ames,  stele,  translation  of, 

153- 

Nephthys,  worship  of,  141, 

Nile,  the,  poems  to,  110;  inunda- 
tions of,  186. 

Nimrod,  prince  of  Hermopolis,  re- 
bellion of,  96. 

Noph,  ruler  of,  96. 

Obelisks  of  Thothmes  I.  at  Thebes, 
69  ; of  Hatasu,  69  ; of  Seti  L,  73. 
Ointment,  offering  of,  143. 

Onions,  a favourite  offering,  143. 
Osiris,  story  of,  136. 

Palettes,  scribes’,  41. 

Palin,  Chevalier,  mistakes  of,  29. 
Papyrus  used  for  writing,  38. 
Pentaur,  poem  of,  copies  of,  74 
Professor  Lushington’s  translation 
of,  too. 

Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  the  probable. 


79- 

Pharaoh,  the  supposed,  who  received 
Abraham,  82. 

Pharaoh’s  daughter  saves  Moses, 


9.T 

Pharaoh’s  dream,  83  ; interpretation 
of,  85. 

Pharaoh  Hophra,  reign  of,  97. 

Pharaoh  Necho,  reign  of,  97. 

Phonetic  writing,  43. 

Phut,  or  Punt,  situation  of,  52. 

Pi-ankhi,  reign  of,  96. 

Pictorial  writing,  43. 

Pithom,  supposed  site  of,  78,  96. 

Plutarch  on  sacrifices,  143. 

Polygamy,  allowance  of,  182. 

Potiphar  and  Joseph,  82,  83  ; mean- 
ing of  name,  86. 

Priests,  orders  of,  144;  description 
of,  145. 

Ptah,  temple  of,  built  by  Mena,  54  ; 
temple  of,  at  Memphis,  repair  of, 
69  ; worship  of,  1 3 5. 

Ptolemy,  hieroglyphic  name  of,  32. 

Punt,  expedition  to  land  of,  or 
Phut,  69. 


INDEX. 


201 


Pyramids  of  Kochome,  55  ! Mey- 
doum,  55  ; of  Cheops,  56 ; of 
Chephren,  56,  6l  ; of  Mycerinus, 
56,  62  ; plan  of  construction  of, 
56 ; Egyptian  name  for,  57  ; 
materials  of,  57  ; amount  of 
labour  required  in  building,  58  ; 
number  of  chambers  in,  58  ; re- 
mains of,  58  ; of  Amenemha,  67. 

Ra,  hymn  to,  112;  seventy-two 
names  for,  129  ; called  Harmachis 
and  Turn  or  Tmu,  130;  worship 

of,  135- 

Rab-shakeh,  taunt  of,  96. 

Raamses,  supposed  site  of,  78  ; 
poem  on  happy  town  of,  96. 

Rameses  I.,  reign  of,  73. 

Rameses  II.,  reign  of,  74;  wars  of, 
against  Ethiopians,  74  ; against 
the  Khita,  74  ; poem  about,  too  ; 
marriage  of,  78  ; buildings  of,  78  ; 
children  of,  79 ; persecution  of 
the  Jews,  88  ; a great  brickmaker, 

^9- 

Rameses  III.,  list  of  offerings  of, 

143- 

Rameses  VII.,  slovenliness  of,  84. 

Razors,  Egyptian,  84. 

Reeds,  used  in  writing,  41. 

Religion,  Egyptian,  number  of  gods, 
129;  triads,  129;  names  of  gods, 
129  ; name  for  god,  130  ; hymn 
to  God,  130  ; list  of  male  gods, 
133;  of  female  gods,  134;  the 
genii  of  the  dead,  135  ; the  enemy 
of  Ra,  135  ; Ptah,  135  ; Osiris, 
136;  Anubis,  139;  Thoth,  140; 
Tmu,  Nephthys,  Horns,  Mut, 
Isis,  Hathor,  141  ; Sekhet,  Bast, 
Chnumis,  Amen-Ra,  142. 

Ring  an  emblem  of  authority,  85. 

Rosetta  Stone,  the,  discovery  of,  18  ; 
description  of,  21  ; inscriptions 
on,  21  ; translation  of  Greek,  22  ; 
a decree,  23  ; to  Good  Fortune,  26 ; 
attempts  to  translate  the  enchorial 
or  demotic  writing  by  Sacy  and 
Akerblad,  28  ; mistakes  of  Palin, 
von  Hammer,  and  Lenoir,  29,  30  ; 
labours  of  Thomas  Young,  30;  of 


Champollion,  31  ; hieroglyphic 
name  of  Ptolemy,  32  ; objections 
to  interpretation,  36 ; letter  of 
Dr.  Lepsius,  36  ; theory  of  Sir 
G.  C.  Lewis,  37. 

Rouge,  de,  on  papyrus  relating  to 
the  Shepherd  Kings,  68. 

Sacrifices,  Egyptian,  143. 

Sacy,  .Silvestre  de,  efforts  of,  to 
translate  demotic,  28. 

Samneh,  fortress  of,  built  by  Usert- 
sen  HI.,  66  ; tablet  at,  66. 

Sarcophagus,  description  of,  162. 

Scarabsei,  uses  of,  in  embalming, 
163. 

Scribes,  importance  of,  42,  85. 

Sculpture  writing,  38. 

Sekenen  Ra,  rebellion  of,  68. 

Sekhet,  worship  of,  142. 

Senefru,  reign  of,  55. 

.Seti  I.,  reign  of,  73  ; builds  the 
Memnonium,  a temple  to  Sekhet, 
a well,  and  an  obelisk,  73  > S'l'"" 
cophagus  of,  at  Soane’s  Museum, 
73- 

Seti  IL,  the  D’Orbiny  Papyrus 
belonged  to,  82. 

Severus,  Emperor,  repairs  statue  of 
Memnon,  72. 

Sharuhen,  fortress  of,  battle  at,  68. 

Shasu,  legend  of  origin  of,  53. 

Shepherd  Kings,  reigns  of,  67. 

Sheps-es-kaf,  reign  of,  63. 

Sheshank,  or  Shishak,  conquests  of, 

95- 

Solomon’s  affinity  with  Pharaoh,  95. 

Song  of  the  Harper,  124. 

Sphinx,  the,  description  of,  61. 

Statues  of  Chephren,  190. 

Stele,  discovery  of,  at  En-Nobeireh, 
22 ; of  Next-Ames,  translation 
of,  153- 

Succoth,  identification  of,  78. 

.Sun’s  disk  worshipped  by  Amen- 
hotep  IV.,  72. 

Tel-el-Amarua,  temple  of  the  sun  at, 
72. 

Thoth,  worship  of,  140. 

Thothmes  L,  reign  of,  69  ; obelisks 
of,  69. 


202 


INDEX. 


Thothmes  II.,  reign  of,  69. 

Thothmes  III.,  reign  of,  70;  con- 
quests of,  71  ; maker  of  Cleo- 
patra’s Needle,  71. 

Thothmes  IV.,  reign  of,  71. 

Thuku,  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  Succoth,  78,  96. 

Tirhakah,  reign  of,  96. 

Tmu,  worship  of,  141. 

Tombs,  Egyptian,  description  of 
Khnum-hetep’.=,  65  ; making  of, 
147  ; description  of,  150  ; pictures 
in,  152  ; at  Beni-Hassan,  171. 

Toys,  Egyptian,  179. 

Translation  and  transliteration, 
specimen  of,  46. 

Turquoise  mining  at  Wady  Mag- 
harah,  55 

Two  Brothers,  Tale  of  the,  reference 
to,  81  ; papyrus  containing,  82; 
paraphrase  of,  115. 

Tyre,  King  of,  conquest  of,  96. 

Uaua  of  Nubia,  defeat  of,  by  Amen- 
emha,  64. 


I Ur-ma-neferu-Ra,  wife  of  Rameses 

I ■ II.,  78. 

Usertsen  I.,  reign  of,  64. 

Usertsen  II.,  reign  of,  65. 

Usertsen  III.,  reign  of,  66  ; deifica- 
tion of,  66. 

Ushabtiu,  uses  of,  164. 

Vines,  cultivation  of,  187. 

Vyse,  Colonel,  on  pyramid  of 
Mycerinus,  62. 

Wall  from  Heliopolis  to  Pelusium, 
built  by  Rameses  II.,  78. 

Wine,  used  by,  187. 

Writing,  Egyptian,  materials  used 
in,  38;  colours  used  in,  38,  41  ; 
sculpture,  38 ; papyrus,  38  ; reeds, 

41  ; ink,  41  ; palettes,  41  ; ideal, 

42  ; pictorial,  43  ; determinatives, 
44  ; specimen  of,  46  ; specimens 
of  hieratic  and  demotic,  49. 

Young,  Thomas,  labours  of,  in  de- 
ciphering hieroglyphics,  30. 
Zedekiah,  rebellion  of,  97. 

Zoega,  discovery  of,  18. 


LIST  OF  SCRIPTURE  REFERENCES. 


Genesis. 


rage 

i.  I 

130 

>>•  7 

131 

X.  6 

51 

xii.  7.  9 

80 

,,  10,  12 

81 

XV.  13  

88 

xxxvii.  28 

82 

xli.  14 

84 

xliii.  II  ... 

67 

xlvii.  25... 

87 

Exodus. 

i.  8 

88 

i.  II 

78 

V.  13  

89 

xii.  40  ... 

88 

xxxiii.  20 

131 

xxxiv.  6 .. 

132 

xxxviii.  8 

9 

Numbers. 

xiv.  18  ... 

132 

xix.  2 

143 

XX.  16  ... 

132 

Deuteronomy, 
vi.  4 ...  ...  130 

X.  17  132 

xxii.  8 ...  ...  185 

xxxii.  6 ...  ...  131 

xxxiii.  27  ...  131 

1 Samuel. 

XV.  22,  23  ...  132 


2 Samuel. 

vii.  22  ... 

Page 

•30 

I Kings. 

iii.  I 

95 

2 Kings. 

ix.  30  

181 

xviii.  21... 

97 

xix.  9 

96 

xxii.  I ... 

74 

xxiv.  7 ... 

97 

2 Chronicles. 

xii.  2-4  ... 

95 

xiii.  9 

132 

Job. 

iii.  14  19 

126 

M 17 

124 

xii.  10  ... 

131 

xxxiii.  4. . . 

131 

xxxvii.  23 

131 

Psalms. 

i.  6 

132 

ii.  7 

131 

X.  16 

• 131 

XXV.  10  ..  . 

• 131 

xxvii.  10 

• 131 

xxxiii.  6... 

• 131 

xxxiv.  17 

Page 

132 

XXXV.  5 ... 

131 

,,  10 

132 

xxxvii.  37 

126 

Ivii.  3 

131 

Iviii.  10  ... 

133 

„ I I ... 

Ixviii.  5 . . . 

132 

•31 

Ixxviii  51 

51 

Ixxxvi.  8 

*32 

Ixxxix.  14 

131 

xc.  2 

131 

xci.  4 

131 

c.  5 

131 

cii.  25-27 

131 

civ.  5 

132 

cvi.  22  ... 

5' 

cxxi.  4 ... 

113 

cxxix.  4... 

133 

cxxxv.  5. .. 

132 

cxlvi.  6 ... 

131 

cxlviii.  5,  6 

132 

Proverbs. 

iii-  33  

133 

viii.  28  ... 

132 

xiv.  II  ... 

133 

xvi.  4 ... 

131 

xxii.  22,  23 

132 

Ecclesiastes. 

i-  4 

124 

iii-  13  

125 

V.  I,  2,  6 

133 

„ 18  

125 

viii.  15  ... 

125 

204 


LIST  OF  SCRIPTURE  REFERENCES. 


Isaiah. 

Page 


Nahum. 

Page 


Romans. 

Page 


ix.  6 

131 

xix.  13 

96 

xxii.  13  , . . 

125 

xxxvii.  9.,. 

96 

xl.  10,  12 

132 

xlii.5  ... 

132 

xlv.  5,  21 

130 

xlv.  12 

131 

Jeremiah. 

ii.  16 

96 

iv.  30  

181 

X.  10  

131 

xxvii.  5 ... 

131 

xvli.  14,  19 

96 

Lamentations. 

iii.  22  ... 

132 

Ezekiel. 

xxiii.  40... 

181 

XXX.  13-16 

96  1 

Daniel. 

V.  23  

131 

Amos. 

iv.  13  

132 

V.  15  

126 

'•7  132 

Malachi. 

ii,  10  ...  130,  131 

“>•  5 132 

Matthew. 

6,  7 133 

Mark. 

ix.  44  126 

Luke. 

xii.  18-21  ...  126 

xix.  12-27  ...  132 


John. 


>•  13  

• 130 

i.  14,  18 

■ 131 

iii,  16,  18 

■ 131 

iv.  24  

. 130 

xiv.  6 

■ 131 

Acts. 

xvii.  25,  28 

131 

ix.  IS  

I Corinthians, 
viii.  6 ... 


Ephesians. 


iv.  6 


Colossians. 
i,  16,  17 


I Timothy. 


i.  17 

vi.  16 


2 Timothy. 


iv.  I 


Hebrews. 


xii.  9 


Revelation. 


1,  8 

iv.  1 1 


132 


130 


130 


130 


131 

131 


124 


130 


131 

131 


Harrison  & Sons,  Printers  in  Ordinary  to  Her  Majesty,  St.  Martin's  Lane. 


THE  MUMMY. 


l6l 


When  the  friends  of  a poor  person  wished  his  intestines 
to  be  under  the  protection  of  these  genii,  and  could  not 
afford  to  go  to  the  expense  of  alabaster  or  wooden  jars, 
they  caused  four  waxen  figures  of  these  gods  to  be  made, 
and  placed  inside  the  body  with  the  intestines. 

When  the  body  had  been  mummified,  and  wrapped 
up  in  linen  bandages,  it  was  a common  thing,  if  the 
deceased  was  a person  of  rank  or  a priest,  to  enclose  it 
in  what  is  called  a cartonnage.  The  cartonnage  was  a 
thin  casing  made  of  plaster  and  linen,  and  it  covered 
the  whole  body,  fitting  closely.  In  the  earlier  days  the 
face  was  painted  only,  but  in  the  time  of  the  Ptolemies 
the  face  and  ears  were  often  gilded,  and  the  eyes,  eye- 
brows and  lids  made  of  glass  or  porcelain.  On  the  top 
of  the  head  a scarabaeus  or  beetle  was  painted  holding 
the  sun  between  its  antenna;,  while  at  the  foot  was  painted 
a figure  of  Nut  or  heaven,  overshadowing  the  mummy, 
and  Isis  and  Nephthys,  the  wife  and  sister  of  the  Osiris 
or  mummy,  stand  one  on  each  side  of  it,  with  wings 
stretched  out  to  protect  the  deceased.  At  one  time  the 
mummy  of  the  deceased  is  represented  as  being  visited 
by  his  soul,  or  with  the  sun  shining  upon  him,  and  at 
another  the  judgment  scene  from  the  one  hundred  and 
twenty-fifth  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  is  shown, 
with  the  soul  of  the  deceased  being  weighed  in  the 
balance  before  Osiris,  the  great  god  of  the  dead,  while 
the  four  genii  of  the  dead  look  on.  The  scenes  depicted 
on  the  cartonnages  vary,  very  few  being  exactly  alike. 
On  some  mummies  scarab^ei,  necklaces,  rows  of  beads, 


L 


1 62  THE  DWELI.ERS  ON  THE  NILE. 

breastplates,  and  figures  are  found  ; and  at  times  objects 
which  were  used  by  the  deceased  in  life  have  been  buried 
with  him,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sacred  bard  An;^;-hapi, 
whose  cymbals  were  found  with  his  mummy,  and  may 
be  seen  in  the  British  Museum.  In  the  last  days  of  the 
Egyptian  empire  a portrait  of  the  deceased  was  painted 
and  laid  upon  the  face  of  the  mummy  ; and  over  the 
mummy  of  a child  in  the  British  Museum  there  is  a 
covering  on  which  is  painted  the  face  and  figure  of  the 
little  Greek.  The  hair  was  mummified,  and  wrapped  in 
bandages  and  laid  at  the  foot  of  the  mummy. 

The  mumm}^  being  arranged  in  its  gaudily  painted 
cartonnage,  was  then  placed  in  a coffin  or  ca.se  of 
sycamore  wood,  which  was  usually  made  to  represent 
the  form  of  a man.  As  the  mummy,  so  the  coffin  was 
made  according  to  the  amount  of  money  the  friends  of 
the  deceased  could  afford  to  pay.  The  rich  indulged 
in  most  beautiful  coffins,  covered  inside  and  out  with 
scenes  and  chapters  from  the  Book  of  the  .Dead, 
allegorical  representations,  etc.,  while  in  the  later  days 
under  the  Ptolemies,  zodiacs  are  often  found.  The 
outer  case  of  all  was  made  of  stone,  and  was  sometimes 
covered  entirely  with  hieroglyphs,  and  at  other  times 
various  scenes  were  introduced  to  illustrate  the  text. 
The  magnificent  stone  sarcophagus  of  Hor-em-heb  in 
the  British  Museum  is  inscribed  with  a series  of  pictures 
representing  the  passage  of  the  sun  through  the  hours 
of  the  day,  and  above  each  scene  are  lines  of  hieroglyphs 
saying  what  gods  are  portrayed,  and  what  is  meant  by 


THE  MUMMY. 


163 

the  pictures.  The  scarabaei  which  were  deposited  with 
the  mummy  were  made  of  various  substances,  and  were 
usually  inscribed  with  the  thirtieth  chapter  of  the  Book 
of  the  Dead,  which  has  for  its  vignette  the  deceased 


.Scarabseus  inscribed  with  a part  of  the  Thirtieth  Chapter  of  the  Ritual  ot 
the  Dead. 


adoring  a scarabseus,  and  whose  rubric  directs  that  this 
chapter  should  be  ‘ said  over  a scarabseus  of  hard  stone. 
Cause  it  to  be  washed  with  gold,  and  placed  within  the 
heart  of  a person.  Make  a phylactery  anointed  with  oil, 

L 2 


164 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


say  over  it  with  magic : My  heart  is  my  mother,  my 
heart  is  my  transformations.’^ 

The  figures  placed  with  the  dead  were  called  tisJiabtm, 
and  were  inscribed  with  the  name  of  the  deceased  and 
the  sixth  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead.  They  were 
supposed  to  do  for  the  deceased  in  Hades  all  the  work 
that  would  otherwise  fall  to  his  lot,  such  as  the  ploughing 
of  fields  and  drawing  water. 

Besides  men  and  women,  the  Egyptians  also 
mummified  cats,  crocodiles,  snakes,  birds  such  as  the 
ibis  and  hawk,  and  many  other  creatures. 

‘ Dr.  BTch,  in  Bunsen’s  ‘ Egypt,’  v.  139. 


Ushabti  Figures  containing  the  Sixth  Chapter  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Dead. 


i6/ 


CHAPTER  IX, 

The  Book  of  the  Dead, 

This  is  the  name  usually  given  by  Egyptologists  to  a 
book  or  collection  of  chapters  which  the  Egyptians 
called  ‘ coming  forth  by  day.’  There  are  a very  large 
number  of  copies  of  this  book  in  the  various  museums 
of  luirope,  and  parts  of  it  are  inscribed  upon  papyrus, 
tombs,  coffins,  mummies,  iishahtiu  figures,  scarabaei,  and 
other  objects.  In  many  copies  the  chapters  are  accom- 
panied by  vignettes,  but  the  arrangement  of  the  chapters 
is  never  the  same  in  any  two  manuscripts,  and  many  of 
the  hieroglyphic  copies  upon  papyrus  show  that  they 
have  been  copied  from  the  hieratic  character,  for  the 
scribe  has  confused  signs  which  are  alike  in  that  style 
of  writing.  The  work  in  some  form  is  exceedingly  old, 
for  there  are  evidences  as  far  back  as  the  eleventh 
dynasty  that  the  knowledge  of  the  meaning  of  certain 
parts  of  it  had  been  already  lost.  As  it  is  now,  it  is  by 
no  means  easy  to  understand,  on  account  of  the  allusions 
to  legends  in  it,  and  its  writer  or  writers  imagining  that 
the  reader  understands  the  whole  system  of  religion  and 
mythology.  The  first  complete  copy  of  the  text  was 
published  by  Lepsius  in  1842  ; and  in  1867  Dr.  Birch 


i68 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


published  a literal  translation  of  it  in  Bunsen’s  ‘ Egypt’s 
Place  in  Universal  History,’  Vol.  V. 

From  the  Book  of  the  Dead  we  gather  that  the  religious 
man  gained  everlasting  life  ; first  living  in  Hades  as 
he  lived  upon  earth,  then  passing  through  whatever 
transformations  he  wished,  and  finally  being  identified 
with  Osiris,  the  god  of  the  dead.  The  rubric  of  the  first 
chapter  says  ; ‘ Let  this  book  be  known  on  earth.  It  is 
made  in  writing  on  the  coffin.  It  is  the  chapter  by 
which  he  comes  out  every  day  as  he  wishes,  and  he  goes 
to  his  house.  He  is  not  turned  back.  There  are  given 
to  him  food  and  drink,  slices  of  flesh  off  the  altar  of  the 
Sun.  When  he  passes  from  the  fields  of  the  Elysium, 
corn  and  barley  are  given  to  him  out  of  them.  For  he  is 
supplied  as  he  was  on  earth. 

In  the  accompanying  illustration  the  future  state  of 
the  blessed  dead  is  depicted.  The  outer  border  is  the 
waters  of  the  Nile.  In  the  top  left-hand  corner  of  the 
scene  are  three  lakes,  underneath  which  is  the  inscription  ; 
‘ Being  in  peace  in  the  fields  of  the  Se;;^et-Aaru.’  Before 
the  ‘gods  of  the  horizon  ’ is  a table  laden  with  offerings, 
and  a hawk  called  ‘Peace,  the  Great  Lord  of  Heaven.’ 
The  deceased  is  seen  offering  to  the  soul,  and  he  paddles 
along  in  a boat  containing  tables  of  offerings.  Behind 
the  boat  is  the  ‘ cycle  of  the  great  gods,’  to  whom  the 
deceased  offers : and  last  of  all  comes  Thoth,  writing  on 
a palette.  In  the  second  division,  the  deceased  is  offering 
to  Hapi  or  the  Nile,  and  is  represented  performing  all 
* Bunsen,  ‘ Egypt,’  v.  p.  163. 


The  Elysian  Fields.  Fron  Lepsius'  ‘ Todtenhuch.'' 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD, 


I/I 


the  various  labours  of  the  field,  ploughing,  sowing,  and 
reaping.  In  the  third  division  are  four  pools,  and  the 


Part  of  the  Seventeenth  Chapter  of  the  Ritual  of  the  Dead.  The  Deceased 
in  a Hall ; the  Boat  of  the  Ram  rowed  by  the  Kings. 


boat  of  Ra  Harmachis,  ‘when  he  travels  to  the  fields  of 
the  Se;;^et-Aaru.’  Next  comes  the  boat  of  Un-nefer  or 
Osiris,  with  paddles  and  a throne.  This  division  i.s 


1/2 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


intersected  by  smaller  streams  of  water : in  the  upper 
part,  or  ‘abode  of  the  beatified  dead,’  dwells  the  Sun- 
god,  and  there  the  corn  grows  to  the  height  of  seven 
cubits ; the  lower  part  is  the  dwelling-place  of  the  gods, 
and  the  gods  represented  are  Shu,  Tefnut,  and  Seb. 

The  seventeenth  chapter  of  the  Book  of  the  Dead  is 
very  important,  as  it  contains  explanations  of  what  is 
laid  down  therein  in  a series  of  questions  and  answers  ; 
for  example : — 

I am  that  splendid  Bird  Bennu,  which  is  in  Heliopolis. 

AVhat  does  this  mean  ? 

T'he  Bennu  bird  is  Osiris  who  is  in  Heliopolis. 

I have  set  two  feathers  upon  my  head. 

AVTat  do  these  two  feathers  signify  ? 

The  two  feathers  are  the  two  uraei  crowns  upon  the  head  of 
my  father  Turn. 

The  transformations  of  the  blessed  dead  could  be  as 
numerous  as  they  pleased,  and  a number  of  chapters 
in  the  Book  of  the  Dead  are  taken  up  in  discussing  them. 
The  progress  of  the  soul  in  the  netherworld  was  barred  by 
countless  demons,  who  waited  to  seize  and  destroy  it  ; but 
their  power  was  utterly  shattered  if  the  deceased  knew 
certain  words  which  were  to  be  uttered.  Attacks  were 
made  upon  all  parts  of  the  body,  especially  the  heart ; 
hence  we  find  that  several  chapters  are  devoted  to  the 
purpose  of  teaching  how  these  may  be  warded  off  or 
rendered  powerless.  Even  after  all  danger  from  the 
attack  of  devils  was  over  for  the  deceased,  there  still 


The  Judgment  Hall  of  Osiris. 


THE  BOOK  OF  THE  DEAD.  1 75 

remained  the  great  and  final  judgment,  which  took  place 
before  Osiris  and  the  forty-two  judges  of  the  dead 
in  the  Hall  of  the  Two  Truths.  In  the  accompanying 
illustration  Osiris  is  sitting  on  a throne,  and  holding  the 
whip  and  sceptre  indicative  of  royalty  and  dominion. 
In  front  of  him  is  an  inscription  which  reads:  ‘ Osiris, 
the  Good  Being,  the  lord  of  life,  the  great  god  and  ruler 
within  Rustat  and  Akart,  Khent  Amenti,  the  great  god, 
lord  of  Abydos,  the  king  everlasting.’  The  forty-two 
figures  are  the  judges  of  the  dead,  each  of  whom  bore  a 
name  descriptive  of  his  part.  Before  the  hall  of  Osiris 
is  a table  laden  with  offerings,  and  above  it  are  the 
four  genii  of  the  dead,  Amset,  Hapi,  Tuaumutef,  and 
Kebhsenuf  Near  the  table  is  the  destroyer  of  enemies, 
a composite  monster,  and  behind  him  stands  Thoth, 
writing  the  decision  on  a palette ; while  his  cynoce- 
phalus  companion  is  seated  on  the  middle  of  the 
balance.  The  heart  of  the  deceased  is  being  weighed 
in  the  right-hand  pan  of  the  scale  against  righteousness 
in  the  other.  Horus  has  his  arm  stretched  out  to  the 
indicator  of  the  balance,  and  Anubis  is  watching  the 
pan  of  the  scale  in  which  the  figure  of  Mat,  righteous- 
ness, is  seated.  On  the  other  side  of  the  heart  stand 
two  figures  of  the  goddess  of  right  or  law,  holding  a 
sceptre,  and  between  them  is  the  deceased.  The  deceased 
then  makes  what  is  called  the  ‘ negative  confession,’  that 
is  a confession  in  which  he  declares  to  each  god  that  he 
has  not  committed  a particular  sin  or  crime,  thus : — 


76 


THE  DWELLERS  ON  THE  NILE. 


Oh  Strider,  coming  out  of  Heliopolis  ! I have  not  been  idle. 

Oh  Gaper,  coming  out  of  Kar  ! I have  not  waylaid. 

Oh  Nostril,  coming  out  of  Hermopolis  ! I have  not  boasted. 

Oh  Devourer  of  Shades,  coming  out  of  the  orbits  ! I have 
not  stolen. 

Oh  Foul  one,  coming  out  of  Rusta  ! I have  not  smitten  men 
privily. 

Oh  Smoking  Face,  coming  out  after  entering  Heliopolis  ! 
I have  not  stolen  the  things  of  the  Gods. 

Oh  Cracker  of  Bones,  coming  out  of  Bubastis  ! I have  not 
told  falsehoods. 

Oh  Glowing  Feet,  coming  out  of  the  Darkness  ! I have  not 
eaten  the  heart. 

Oh  Eater  of  Blood,  coming  from  the  Block  ! I have  not 
killed  sacred  beasts. 

Oh  Ruler  of  the  Dead,  coming  out  of  the  cave  ! I have  not 
corrupted  women  or  men. 

Oh  Swallower,  coming  out  of  Khenem  ! I have  not 
blasphemed. 

Oh  Lord  of  Purity,  coming  out  of  Sais  ! I have  not  multiplied 
words  in  speaking. 

Oh  Nefer  Tmu,  coming  out  of  Ptah-ka  ! I have  not  lied  or 
done  any  wicked  sin. 

Oh  Eye  in  his  Heart,  coming  out  of  Sahu  ! I have  not  defiled 
the  river. 

Oh  Yoker  of  Good,  coming  out  of  Heliopolis ! I have  not 
injured  the  Gods,  or  calumniated  the  slave  to  his 
master.' 


' Bunsen’s  ‘ Egypt,’  v.  p.  254.